^^ 



PRACTICAL 



PRINCE 




Class _Z^ 

Book 

Copyright^?— 



COPYRIGHT DEPOSIT. 



A PRACTICAL 
ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



FOR UPPER GRADES 



J 



BY 



JOHN Tr PRINCE, Ph.D. 

Author of ''Courses and Methods," "Arithmetic by Grades' 
"School Organization," '^ Schools of Germany " etc. 



GINN and company 

BOSTON • NEW YORK ■ CHICAGO • LONDON 



COPYRIGHT, 1910, BY JOHN T. PRINCE 

ENTERED AT STATIONERS' HALL 

ALL RIGHTS RESERVED 

910.4 



€Ci.A265l68 



GINN AND COMPANY • PRO- 
PRIETORS • BOSTON • U.S.A. 



PREFACE 

The use of English grammar as a branch of study in the 
schools has been, and still is, a disputed point. The uncer- 
tainty of educators in their attitude toward the subject is 
shown by the changing place it has had in the elementary- 
school course in recent years, — now pursued in all its formal 
technicalities, and now dropped altogether or else given a 
minor place in so-called language lessons. So far as the 
practical results of the study afford a basis for judgment, it 
must be confessed that such results in many places stand as 
an argument for its exclusion altogether from the grammar 
schools. But it is believed that the reason for failure lies in 
the fact that too much has been attempted in the learning of 
many principles and forms, and too little in their application 
to what is useful and comprehensible to the pupils. Too fre- 
quently the courses of study and the textbooks show that an 
endless mass of facts is required, much of it independent of 
any immediate use to the pupils. The facts presented are 
also in many cases fit only for mature minds and then merely 
as a means of '' mental discipline." The result is that many 
pupils after years of study are unable to apply the commonest 
and simplest rules of syntax, either in speaking or in writing, 
while they seem to be almost wholly lacking in that knowledge 
of grammatical relations which helps them in the study of 
English literature or of a foreign language. 

It is the aim of this book to present in simple form the 
most important facts of correct English construction and to 



iv ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

provide abundant practice in the application of them, with 
the object of accomphshing certain definite practical results. 
These results are : ( i ) such a knowledge of the relations of 
words in sentences as will give the pupils ability to analyze 
intelligently the best literature of our language ; (2) such a 
knowledge of the common principles and rules of construc- 
tion as will help the pupils to express themselves correctly in 
language which they are likely to use ; and (3) such a knowl- 
edge of the inflections and relations of words as will assist 
the pupils in acquiring a foreign language. 

The introductory chapter is intended only as a hint to the 
teacher of what should be done to prepare pupils for the study 
of grammar. Quite extended drill should be given upon the 
topics covered in the first two sections ; for the value of gram- 
mar to pupils will greatly depend upon their having a clear 
notion of the difference between ideas and thoughts on the 
one hand and words and sentences on the other. 

It is assumed that the pupils have had a good degree of 
practice in the use of correct language before the study of 
grammar is begun, especially in the constant practice of re- 
peating sentences involving rules of construction most fre- 
quently violated. Before these rules are studied there should 
be such a repetition of correct forms as to offset the influence 
of incorrect speech, to which children are so often exposed. 
The importance is apparent of getting the ear accustomed to 
correct forms both as an end in itself and as a preparation 
for grammatical study. Special exercises for correctness, 
therefore, should be given during the first six years of school 
life. It is at the close of this period that the formal study of 
grammar should be begun, to continue for two or three years 
in the upper grades of the grammar school. 



PREFACE V 

It is believed that the facts given in the body of the book 
are all that will be needed for ordinary uses either in expres- 
sion or in interpretation. The more difficult uses and rela- 
tions of words are given in the Appendix, mainly for reference 
and for the benefit of those pupils who are able to do more 
than the ordinary work of a class. By this means there is 
avoided the confusion of too many details and the danger of 
making the work too difficult for the pupils. 

Grateful acknowledgments are due to Miss Katharine H. 
Shute of the Boston Normal School, to Mr. William D. 
Parkinson, Superintendent of Schools, Waltham, Mass., and 
to the proof readers of the Athenaeum Press for the invaluable 
aid which they have given in reading the proof. 

Among the grammars consulted in the preparation of the 
book are Whitney's, Meikeljohn's, and Matzner's, to which 
the author is under special obligations. 

J. T. P. 



CONTENTS 

Page 

INTRODUCTION . . ' i 

Chapter 

I. The Sentence 7 

II. Parts of Speech 12 

III. Subject and Predicate 33 

IV. Objects and Complements 45 

V. Phrases, Clauses, and Sentences 54 

VI. Nouns 6S 

VII. Pronouns 94 

VIII. Adjectives • . . 130 

IX. Verbs and Verbals 144 

X. Adverbs 189 

XI. Prepositions 196 

XII. Conjunctions 200 

XIII. General Review 205 

APPENDIX 221 

INDEX. . 251 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

INTRODUCTION 

WHAT ENGLISH GRAMMAR IS, AND WHY IT IS STUDIED 

The first thing that a boy or girl wants to know before a 
new piece of work is taken up is whether it is of any use, 
and, if it is of any use, what that use is. Before these ques- 
tions can be answered in respect to Enghsh grammar, it will 
be necessary to show just what is meant by grammar, and 
what relation it has to language. 

1. Ideas and Words. When you see an object or hear a 
sound, there is made on your mind an impression which you 
are able to recall afterwards. This impression is called an idea. 
Thus you have an idea of the size or color of an apple which 
you have seen, or of the sound of an explosion which you 
have heard. These may be called ''quality ideas." You may 
also have ''action ideas," as when you see the movements 
of boys and birds. All these ideas may be expressed by the 
words "large," "red," "loud," "run," and ''fly," which may 
be spoken or written. 

Again, when you hear words spoken or see them written 
or printed, they suggest or call up in your mind ideas. For 

Note. Heavy-type figures in parentheses refer to numbered sections 
in the body of the book. Parts of the Appendix are referred to by Roman 
numerals preceded by the abbreviation ^^ App." Thus, App. IV means 
Part IV of the Appendix. 



2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

example, the words ''dog" and ''tricks" may suggest to you 
your dog at home and what you have taught him to do. 

Words used in speaking or writing are expressions or signs of 
ideas. 

2. Thoughts and Sentences. When you say the word 
"candy" you express an object idea. When you say the 
word "sweet" you express a quahty idea. Neither expres- 
sion taken by itself tells or asserts anything. But when you 
connect the tvv^o words by "is," you assert or tell something ; 
that is, you express a complete thought when you say," Candy 
is sweet," and the words so expressed are called a Sentence. 

You may use several words together and still not make a 
sentence, as when you say, "This candy in my hand." Such 
an expression is not a sentence because it does not express 
a complete thought. What word could you insert in this 
expression so as to make a sentence ? 

Sometimes an object idea and an action idea are brought 
together in the mind, as when we join the idea of "birds" 
and of "flying." When we do that we have a complete 
thought, and when we express the thought in words we 
have the sentence "Birds fly" or "Birds are flying." 

Which of the following expressions are sentences, and 
why ? 

1. The beautiful flowers. 

2. The flowers are beautiful. 

3. The boys of this school. 

4. Excused for absence. 

5. The largest tree in the middle of the forest. 

6. I saw a squirrel in the woods. 

7. Ripen the last of August. 

8. The apples growing upon this tree. 

9. A very pleasant day for our excursion. 



WHAT ENGLISH GRAMMAR IS 3 

Join 3 and 4 so as to form a sentence. The insertion of 
what word in 5 will make a sentence ? 

From what you have learned, can you define a sentence ? 

Two things should be kept in mind in defining a sentence : 
(i) that it is a group of words ; and (2) that it expresses a 
complete thought. 

A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete 
thought. 

3. English Language. The term '' language" as commonly 
used means the expression of ideas and thoughts. By Eng- 
lish language, or English, is meant the language used by the 
people of England and by all others who speak like them. 
The history of this language shows that its present condition 
has been attained by very slow growth, its form having been 
changed by influences which have been going on for over 
fifteen hundred years, until at the present time it is one of 
the richest of modern languages. 

English language as it is spoken and written is either 
''good English" or ''bad English." English is good which 
clearly, exactly, and correctly expresses what the speaker or 
writer intends to say. Correctness of language, which is the 
main purpose of our present study, means the right constiiLc- 
tion of sentences, and is gained by following the practices 
of the best speakers and writers. 

English language as a study is that knowledge which has for 
its object the right construction of sentences. 

4. English Grammar. The object of the study of English 
language is a knowledge of the usages of the best speakers 
and writers. The purpose of English grammar is simply to 
aid in attaining that object by explaining or interpreting the 



4 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

language that is thus used. This is done by showing the 
correct forms and uses of words in their various relations. 

English grammar is that knowledge which has for its object the 
interpretation of the right construction of sentences. 

5. Purpose of the Study of English Grammar. Without 
the study of English grammar we might know the correct 
uses and forms of words from imitation, and be able to ex- 
press ourselves with unvarying correctness. But to possess 
this knowledge and ability it would be necessary for us to 
come in contact with correct forms only. If we heard and 
saw none but correct English we should know from the sound 
or appearance of the words whether they were right or wrong, 
and of course it would be only by accident if we used a word 
incorrectly or if we used the wrong form of a word. As it is, 
however, we cannot trust our ears or eyes to guide us in the 
correct use of language, so accustomed are we to hearing and 
seeing wrong forms and uses of words. 

Suppose, for example, you supply in each of the following 
blanks the word which you think is correct : 

He called to see my sister and . (Use ^^ I " or " me.") 

I did not know it was. (Use '^ who " or '' whom.") 

Neither of us to blame. (Use '' was " or " were.") 

The flower in your hand looks . (Use '' beautiful " or 

^^beautifully.") 

You may be able to use the correct words in the above ex- 
pressions, but unless you can give some principle or rule 
founded upon the best usage to account for them, you will 
not be sure that you are right. One use of the study of 
grammar, therefore, is the knowledge of principles and rules 
which will help us to speak and write correctly, or which will 
be a test of the English we use. 



WHAT ENGLISH GRAMMAR IS 5 

Again, if we know the correct forms of words and their 
relations in sentences, we are enabled to see more clearly 
than we could otherwise the meaning of what we read. This 
knowledge is found especially useful in interpreting difficult 
or obscure passages. Take, for example, the lines : 

True hope is swift, and flies with swallow's wings ; 
Kings it makes gods, and meaner creatures, kings. 

What can you say of the meaning of the second line ? Are 
you so sure of the meaning that you can express it fully in 
your own language ? You may be able to do this, but you 
will be surer of the true meaning if you have had much 
practice in the analysis of sentences, which is seeing the 
relations of words in sentences. 

There is another use of a good knowledge of English 
grammar, and that is, the help it gives in learning a foreign 
language. A knowledge of the forms of English words and 
their relations in sentences will enable one to understand and 
learn more easily similar variations of form and relations in 
another language. 

These, then, are the direct practical uses of knowing 
English grammar, namely : 

1 . Assistance in speaking and writing correctly by know- 
ing the rules and principles of the construction of sentences 
(syntax). 

2. Ability to understand more clearly the meaning of what 
is read by knowing how to separate a sentence into parts 
and by knowing the function of these parts in the sentence 
(analysis). 

3. Preparation for the study of a foreign language by 
knowing the classification and inflection of English words 
(etymology). 



6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

There is still another use of the study of elementary gram- 
mar which is perhaps as important as those which have been 
mentioned, and that is, its use as a preparation for the higher 
study of English in high school or college. There is no better 
foundation for good scholarship in any department of study, 
especially in English composition and literature, than a thor- 
ough knowledge of the principles underlying the structure of 
our language. 

To secure all these ends of grammatical study, it will be 
necessary to apply by much practice the facts of construction 
that are learned. Opportunities for practice are given in 
the many special exercises which are scattered throughout 
this book. It is hoped that the directions they contain will 
be carefully followed, so as to make the study of the greatest 
value to you. 



CHAPTER I 

THE SENTENCE 

6. Kinds of Sentences according to Use. You have learned 
that a sentence is a group of words so arranged as to express 
a complete thought ; but in all the examples of sentences 
given in 2, only one form of a complete thought is expressed, 
— that of asserting or telling something. This kind of sen- 
tence is sometimes called an assertion. 

There are two other kinds of sentences which are fre- 
quently used : 

1. The kind used in asking questions. 

2. The kind used in making an entreaty or in giving a 
command. 

The use of these three kinds of sentences is shown in the 
following examples : 

The door is shut. 
Is the door shut ? 
Please shut the door. 

Sentences of these kinds may also be used in exclamation 
or in some excited state of mind as when we say : 

What a strong wind this is ! 
Does n't the wind blow ! 
Hear the wind blow ! 

The names and uses of all these kinds of sentences will 
be seen in the sections which follow. 

7 



8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

7. Declarative Sentences. The sentence '' Football is a 
good game " declares or asserts something. The same is 
true of each of the following sentences : 

I saw a good game of ball yesterday. The game began 
at two o'clock. It lasted two hours. 

All such sentences are called Declarative Sentences/ 

A declarative sentence is a sentence that declares or asserts. 

8. EXERCISES 

I. Make declarative sentences telling about (i) bananas; 
(2) a horse; (3) what you like to do; (4) where you went 
yesterday ; (5) Abraham Lincoln. 

II. Make five declarative sentences telling about the town 
or city in which you live. 

III. Find, if you can, five short declarative sentences in 
this book. 

9. Interrogative Sentences. If you say to one of your 
classmates, '' Where is the lesson in arithmetic ? Have you 
performed all the problems ? " you are expressing complete 
thoughts in the form of questions. That is, you are using 
sentences that interrogate or ask questions. They are there- 
fore called Interrogative Sentences. 

Write a sentence which asks a question about (i) the 
weather ; (2) that apple ; (3) where some one has been ; 
(4) what some one has done ; (5) what some one intends 
to do. 

What kind of sentences have you written ? How do they 
differ from declarative sentences ? 

An interrogative sentence is a sentence used in asking a question. 

1 They are also called sometimes Assertive Sentences. 



THE SENTENCE 9 

10. EXERCISES 

I. Point out all the interrogative sentences you can find 
on page 8. 

11. Construct interrogative sentences that can be answered 
by the following declarative sentences : 

1. The oldest town in the United States is St. Augustine, Florida. 

2. It was founded by the Spaniards in 1565. 

3. Jamestown, Virginia, was settled by the English in 1607. 

4. Plymouth, Massachusetts, was settled by the Pilgrims in 1620. 

5. They were Separatists from the Church of England. 

6. The Massachusetts Bay Colony was founded by the Puritans 
in 1629. 

III. Construct five interrogative sentences and five de- 
clarative sentences that have some connection with your 
lessons. 

11. Imperative Sentences. If you say, '' Put the book on 
the table," you express a command. If you say, ''Please 
shut the door," or '' Pardon me," you express a request. Such 
sentences as these are called Imperative Sentences. 

Make an imperative sentence such as a boy might use in 
speaking to a dog. Make an imperative sentence such as a 
boy might use at the dinner table. If a man wishes to apolo- 
gize to some one for something he has done, what might he 
say ? 

An imperative sentence is a sentence expressing a command or 
a request. 

12. EXERCISES 

I. Find three imperative sentences in this section. 

II. Find five declarative sentences in one of your text- 
books and change them into imperative sentences. 



lO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

III. Construct five imperative sentences such as an officer 
might use in giving orders. 

13. Exclamatory Sentences. Sometimes a declarative, an 
interrogative, or an imperative sentence expresses surprise 
or strong emotion, as 

Oh, how warm it is ! 

This is a declarative sentence which expresses strong feel- 
ing. Strong feeling is also expressed in some interrogative 
and imperative sentences, such as 

Is n't the music grand ! 

Ay, tear her tattered ensign down ! 

All such sentences are said to be Exclamatory Sentences. 

An exclamatory sentence is a sentence that expresses strong 
feeling. 

Tell whether each of the following exclamatory sentences 
is declarative, interrogative, or imperative : 

1. Rouse, ye Romans ! 

2. Will ye give it up to slaves ! 

3. Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 

4. The ground 's your own, my braves ! 

6. How sublime is the sea at such a time ! 

14. EXERCISES 

I. Change the following into exclamatory sentences : 

1. I wish he were here. 4. It was a glorious sunset. 

2. Is this not great fun ? 5. It is a very pleasant day. 

3. Do not speak a word. 6. Are you going home so soon ? 

II. Select ten exclamatory sentences from your reading 
book and classify them into declarative, interrogative, and 
imperative sentences. 



THE SENTENCE II 

15. EXERCISE 

Tell the kind of each of the following sentences : 

1. Be ye all of one mind. 

2. This is the forest primeval. 

3. Woodman, spare that tree ! 
Touch not a single bough ! 

4. How are the mighty fallen ! 

5. Listen to this Indian legend, 
To this song of Hiawatha. 

6. '' Will you walk into my parlor ? '^ 
Said the spider to the fly. 

7 . There 's no rain left in heaven. 

8. Is it so nominated in the bond ? 

9. What is so rare as a day in June ? 
Then, if ever, come perfect days. 

10. Give me liberty or give me death. 

11. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 

12. Love is sunshine, hate is shadow, 
Life is checkered shade and sunshine ; 

Rule by love, O Hiawatha. 

13. O mighty Caesar, dost thou lie so low ! 

14. The curfew tolls the knell of parting da}^ 

The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

15. Oh, what a fall was there, my countrymen ! 

16. The vine still clings to the mouldering wall. 
But at every gust the dead leaves fall. 
And the day is dark and dreary. 

17. There 's no dew left on the daisies and clover. 

18. Now fades the glimmering landscape on the sight. 

19. Little Boy Blue, come blow your horn, 

The sheep 's in the meadow, the cow 's in the corn. 

20. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. 

21. Go to the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways and be wise. 



CHAPTER II 

PARTS OF SPEECH 

, Note to Teachers. In this chapter only the most obvious dis- 
tinctions of word relations will be made. The purpose is to prepare the 
pupils for the work required in the three following chapters. 

16. Classification of Words. You have learned that sen- 
tences are divided into different classes according to their 
use. In the same way words may be classified according to 
their use in sentences. The use of words in sentences de- 
pends upon the kind of ideas they express or the part they 
have in helping to express a thought. There are, for example, 
words which express object ideas, others which express action 
ideas, and still others which express quality ideas. A word 
may, however, belong to more than one class if used in dif- 
ferent ways, as are the italicized words in the following 

sentences : 

1 . They sail the boat. 

2. The boat has a sail. 

3. They whip the horses with a iiuhip, 

4. Mr. Black will black the black shoes. 

The classes into which words are divided according to their 
use in sentences are called parts of speech. Each word is 
called a part of speech because it is only part of a sentence.^ 

1 This name '' part of speech " given to a word plainly implies that 
there is something incomplete about it, that it is not a whole but must be 
joined with other " parts " in order to make a whole, or in order to be 
speech. That is in fact the case, and the whole which these parts make up 
is the sentence. — W. D. Whitney in Essentials of English Grammar. 

12 



PARTS OF SPEECH 1 3 

17. Nouns. 

1. Columbus made three voyages to America. 

2. Mexico was first settled by the Spaniards. 

3. The Mayflower sailed from Plymouth, England. 

4. The city of Paris is the capital of France. 

5. New York is the largest city in the United States. 

6. Nathaniel Hawthorne wrote '' The Marble Faun.'' 

7. An island is a body of land surrounded by water. 

Point out the words or groups of words above that are used 
as the names of persons, places, and things. 

Give in sentences five names of persons, five names of 
places, and five names of things. 

Words used as the names of persons, places, or things are called 
nouns. 

Nouns also include the names of qualities or states con- 
sidered apart from objects to which they belong. Such are 
the italicized words in the following sentences : 

1. The warmth of the fire revived him. 

2. The brightness of the sun ^^cltX^A his eyes. 

3. Switzerland is noted for its beauty of scenery. 

Use the following nouns in sentences : 

growth laughter sickness honesty 

truth courage running friendship 

A noun is a word or group of words used as the name of some- 
thing. 

18. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the nouns in the following sentences and tell 
of each noun whether it is the name of one or more persons, 
places, or things, or of some quality or condition used as a 
name. Point out the groups of words that are used as nouns. 



14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

I. The Northmen lived on the coast of Norway. 2. They, with 
men of the same name from the neighboring coast of Denmark, 
visited the shores of England. 3. One of the Northmen was Eric. 
4. He crossed the sea from Ireland and discovered a country still 
farther west. 6. Snow and ice covered the new country, which he 
called Greenland. 

6. The Indians taught the white men many things that w^ere of 
the greatest use to them. 7. White men had never seen an ear 
of corn until they came to America. 8. Now and then they caught 
sight of a few Indians on the bank of the river. 9. They also saw 
herds of deer and buffalo. 

10. Captain John Smith was one of the settlers of Virginia. 
11. The Indians captured him while he was on an exploring ex- 
pedition. 12. He said that a chief's young daughter saved his life. 
13. The name of the girl was Pocahontas. 14. Afterwards she 
married John Rolfe, one of the colonists. 15. For some time the 
English people and the Indians lived in peace together. 

II. Point out the nouns in the following paragraph : 

One evening, in times long ago, old Philemon and his old wife 
Baucis sat at their cottage door, enjoying the calm and beautiful 
sunset. They had already eaten their frugal supper, and intended 
now to spend a quiet hour or two before bedtime. So they talked 
together about their garden, and their cow, and their bees, and 
their grapevine, which clambered over the cottage wall, and on 
which the grapes were beginning to turn purple. But the rude 
shouts of children and the fierce barking of dogs, in the village 
near at hand, grew louder and louder, until, at last, it was hardly 
possible for Baucis and Philemon to hear each other speak. 

^^ Ah, wife,'' cried Philemon, '' I fear some poor traveler is seek- 
ing hospitality among our neighbors yonder, and, instead of giving 
him food and lodging, they have set their dogs at him, as their 

custom IS ! ' Hawthorne's " Wonder Book" 

III. Construct five sentences of each of the kinds which 
you have learned about, and point out the nouns in them. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 1 5 

19. Pronouns. How may the following sentences be im- 
proved ? '' James went to visit James's grandmother." ''The 
grandmother was very glad to see James." 

What word should be used instead of '' James's " ? What 
words may be used instead of ''The grandmother" and 
"James" in the second sentence.? 

Examine carefully the following sentences and tell what 
noun each italicized word stands f or : " James went to see kis 
grandmother, w/io was very glad to see himy " They talked 
about the school zvhich he attended." 

The words used in place of nouns are called pronouns. 

Point out the pronouns in the following sentences and tell 
what each pronoun stands for : 

1. Mary lost her pencil. 

2. She found it in her desk. 

3. John asked his mother if he might go. 

4. She told him that she needed him at home. 

5. Charles had two rabbits and he gave them apples to eat. 

6. The boys gave their sister a book which she liked very much. 

7. '' Where do you suppose I went last Saturday ? " said Henry 
to his brother. 

8. We wish that you would go with us to the concert to-night. 

9. The books which I bought for my cousins were sent by 
express yesterday. 

Sometimes, as in 8 and 9, the noun for which a pronoun 
stands is not expressed. " You " in 8 refers to the person 
or persons spoken to, and in 9 " I " refers to the speaker. 
For what do "we" and "us" in 8 stand.? "You" in 7 
stands for what 1 

The word or words for which a pronoun stands is called its 
antecedent. 



1 6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

20. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the pronouns in the following selection and 
give the antecedent of each. 

A thirsty crow spied a pitcher, and flew to it to see if there was 
any water in it. When she looked in she saw that there was water 
in the pitcher, but that it was so far from the top that she could 
not reach it, though she stretched her neck as far as she could. 
She stopped and thought to herself, '^ How shall I get that water ? 
I need it and there must be some way." Just then she saw some 
pebbles lying on the ground ; and, picking them up in her beak, she 
dropped them one by one into the pitcher. They sank to the 
bottom and at last the water was pushed up by them to the top, 
so that the crow could easily drink it. 

II. Write twelve sentences using the pronouns ''you," 
''them," "me," "their," "his," "my," "mine," "your," 
"its," "who," "which," "that," and state what the ante- 
cedent of each pronoun is. 

21. Adjectives. If we say, "Men are wise," we include in 
the statement all men. But if we say, " Some men are wise," 
the word " some " limits or modifies the meaning of " men " 
so as to mean a portion of the men. Again, we see that 
"wise" modifies the meaning of "men" by telling what 
kind of men they are. The words " some " and " wise " in 
this sentence are called Adjectives. 

In the sentences " They are clever " and " He is absent," 
" clever " and " absent " are adjectives limiting or modifying 
the pronouns " they " and "he." 

An adjective is a word which modifies the meaning of a noun or 
pronoun. 

The italicized words in the following sentences are adjectives. 
Point out the noun or pronoun which each adjective modifies. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 1 7 

1. I have a black coat. 2. My coat is black. 3. He is an honest 
man. 4. He is honest. 5. The flowers are beautiful. 6. They are 
also j"W<?<?/. 7. I saw a /<^;^^ black dog. 8. The building is long and 
^^^/^. 9. This apple is S7nall and j'^'^/r. 10. My yoiuig brother is 
very happy. 

22. EXERCISES 

I. In the following sentences point out the adjectives and 
the noun or pronoun to which each adjective belongs : 

1. It is a pleasant day. 

2. I bought a black horse. 

3. Those flowers are beautiful. 

4. I was very young when he went away. 

5. February has twenty-nine days every fourth year. 

6. There are fifty sheep in the large pasture. 

7. The apples are large but they are not ripe. 

8. Few and short were the prayers we said. 

9. She wedded a man" unlearned and poor. 

10. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

II. The greatest truths are sometimes the simplest. 

12. Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak. 

13. The true and strong and sound mind is the mind that can 
embrace equally great things and small. 

14. The smith, a mighty man is he 

With large and sinewy hands. 

15. The way was long, the wind was cold, 
The minstrel was infirm and old ; 
His withered cheek and tresses gray 
Seemed to have known a better day. 

11. Use the following adjectives in sentences and tell what 
they limit : 

that good brave happy terrible 

those fair young clever splendid 

each well true large handsome 



1 8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

III. Copy the following and insert in each blank an appro- 
priate adjective : 

1. It is weather to-day. 

2. apples are very . 

3. The sunset looked yesterday. 

4. Wellington was a general. 

5. Washington was elected the President. 

6. hands make • work. 

7. A • answer turneth away wrath. 

8. A horse is soon curried. 

9. A son maketh a father. 

10. A heart maketh a countenance. 

11. A name is rather to be chosen than riches. 

IV. Point out the nouns, pronouns, and adjectives in the 
sentences in 15. 

23. Verbs, i. You have learned that such a sentence as 
'' The boys play ball " is a declarative sentence. The word 
that declares or asserts something is '' play." This word 
asserts physical action. The asserting word may also assert 
mental action, as, ''We learned our lessons." Sometimes 
the asserting word asserts state or condition, as, '' This apple 
tastes sweet " ; and sometimes it asserts only existence or 
being, as, '' We are pupils of. the grammar school." 

Read over carefully the following sentences and pick out 
the asserting words : 

1. The horse runs away. 

2. They study their lessons. 

3. He thinks he will go. 

4. He loves his mother dearly. 

5. There is a small boy here. 

6. I slept very well last night. 

7. The flowers grow in the garden. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 1 9 

Which of the asserting words above assert action ? Which 
asserts state or condition ? Which asserts existence or being ? 
All such asserting words are called Verbs. 

A verb is a word which asserts action, state, or being. 

2. Sometimes two or more words are used together as a 
verb, as in the following sentences : 

1. I have written a letter. 

2. He will go to-morrow. 

3. You may do it if you like. 

4. My sister will have gone before I arrive. 

5. They did not come until yesterday. 

6. Have you 7xcited your lesson yet ? 

7. Does ^^ play on the piano ? 

8. Has your brother John ever been in Europe ? 

Such groups of words as ''have written," ''will go," etc., 
are called verb phrases. They are also referred to simply as 
verbs. 

Observe in the last four sentences above that the words of 
each verb phrase are separated by one or more words ; thus in 
5 the verb phrase is " did come " and in 8 it is " has been." 

24. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the verbs in the following sentences : 

1. Columbus first gave the name Indians to the wild people that 
he saw in the West Indies Islands. 2. They were a copper-colored 
race of people who usually lived in villages of bark huts. 3. They 
had no horses, cattle, or sheep, and they had no tools. 4. The 
men made trails across the country for roads, and they paddled 
their canoes on the streams and lakes. 5. These Indians lived 
mainly by hunting and fishing. 6. They also cultivated small pieces 
of land on which they raised corn, beans, pumpkins, and tobacco. 



20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

7. The women or squaws did most of the work. 8. They built the 
birch-bark wigwams, and they hoed the corn and tobacco with 
clamshell hoes. 9. They cooked the breakfast and washed the 
pots in which they had cooked it. 10. They had made the pots 
from clay which was baked in the fire. 

Adapted from Montgomery's " Elementary American History" 

II. Point out the verb phrases in the following sentences : 

1. The architect has completed the plans. 

2. Some of the men have been working in the mines. 

3. He will have heard the good news before he goes. 

4. Did he bring the book which he borrowed from you ? 

5. If he tries very hard, he may yet win the prize. 

6. Do you think that they will finish the work to-day ? 

7. I do not know what he has done with the knife. 

8. What were you doing yesterday when I called ? 

9. At this time to-morrow we shall be driving. 

10. When does he think that the ship will sail ? 

11. He could have gone if he had asked permission. 

12. They might have made the canal wide enough in the first 
place. 

13. We could have bought the island for a small sum. 

14. Such an investment would have proved profitable. 

III. Supply the blanks below with appropriate verbs and 
verb phrases : 

1. Cotton in a warm climate. 

2. The soldier instantly. 

3. the lecture at eight o'clock ? 

4. you the entire poem ? 

5. The thrushes not in August. 

6. He a brief history of the town. 

7. you not for several hours ? 

8. He the field when the summons came. 

9. They the bridge which the enemy . 



PARTS OF SPEECH 2 1 

10. Thev night and day and very tired. 

11. The bluebirds to their old nest in the apple tree. 

12. The bov immediately the message which he . 

13. The farmers great cargoes of wheat to the 

East. 

14. The elephant ■ several loads of teak logs to the 

wharf. 

15. The old Indian the boys to use the bow and the 

spear. 

16. The land so carefully that it yields abun- 

dant crops. 

17. The wounded soldier on the battle field many 

hours. 

18. The eagle swiftly down and the fish from the 

weaker bird. 

19. For three days the soldiers across the 

barren plain. 

20. He that the natives of India still the rud- 
est implements. 

25. Adverbs. 

1. He went there. 

2. The train will go soon. 

3. The bird sang merrily. 

4. The apple is quite ripe. 

5. It is an uncommonly fine day. 

6. ]\Iar}^ writes very rapidly. 

7. The horse trots too slowly. 

What is the verb in i ? Wliat word modifies its meaning 
by telling zchcre he went 1 

What word modifies ''will go" in 2} \Miat question 
does it answer ? 

What word in 3 modifies '' sang" } W^hat question does 
it answer ? 



2 2 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The words ''there," ''soon," and "merrily" modify the 
meaning of verbs and are therefore called Adverbs. 

Adverbs may modify the meaning not only of verbs but 
also of adjectives, as " quite " in 4. 

Point out in 5 the adjective and the modifying adverb. 

An adverb may also modify the meaning of another adverb, 
as " very " in 6. 

What adverb in 7 modifies an adverb ? What question 
does it answer ? 

An adverb is a word used to modify the meaning of a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb. 

An adverb generally answers the questions Where? When? 
Hozv? or How miLch? 

26. EXERCISES 

I. Write sentences using the following adverbs : 



quickly 


always 


scarcely 


well 


gently 


almost 


generally 


cruelly 


easily 


nowhere 


quietly 


surely 



In each case tell what the adverb modifies and what ques- 
tion it answers ; for example, in the sentence, "He will do 
the work quickly," "quickly" modifies the verb "will do" 
and is therefore an adverb. It answers the question How ? 

II. Point out the adverbs in the following sentences and 
tell what part of speech each adverb modifies : 

1 . Will you go now ? 

2. He often goes there. 

3. She was seriously ill. 

4. They went away yesterday. 

5. Why do you retire so early ? 

6. Do not read quite so rapidly. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 23 

7. It is an extremely dull season. 

8. They waited there very patiently. 

9. Please write slowly and carefully. 

10. You should always tell the truth. 

11. He wandered about quite aimlessly. 

12. The lady looked uncommonly handsome. 

13. Please speak your words more distinctly. 

14. He had learned the trade most thoroughly. 

15. He was unreasonably angry over the matter. 

16. The postman generally comes at nine o'clock. 

17. He that works industriously will surely succeed. 

18. Yesterday the rather tiresome story was finished. 

19. You have done well, but I believe you can do better. 

20. I finally arrived home and resolved that I would never again 
go so far away. 

21. We cannot expect that this extremely pleasant weather will 
last long. 

22. When we arrived the rest of the climbers had already 
reached the summit. 

23. The season is rather late, but I think the buds will open 
soon. 

24. Finally the plans w^ere made and the conspirators anxiously 
waited for the dawn. 

25. Fortunately the boy was still alive when he was found by 
his terribly frightened comrades. 

III. Fill the blanks below with appropriate adverbs : 
1. We shall go . 



2. Charles reads . 

3. shall you go ? 

4. He was injured. 

5. The fire is burning 



6. We heard the noise ■ distinctly. 

7. He selected the goods . 

8. He obeyed and . 



24 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

9. I am feeling well. 

10. You are younger than I. 

11. many cooks spoil the broth. 

12. rose old Barbara Frietchie — 



27. Prepositions. 

1. The book is on the desk. 

2. The man came by the train. 

3. He will remain during the week. 

4. A block of wood was placed behi?td the wheel. 

Note carefully the italicized words in the above sentences. 
Observe that each of these words expresses a certain relation 
which the noun after it has to some other word. 

For example, ''on" in i expresses a certain relation 
which the noun '' desk " has to the verb ''is." It expresses 
in this case the relation of place. There are many words that 
express this relation, as in the sentences "The book is in 
(by, near, nnder) the desk," " The boy walked over {around, 
past, tLp, down, across) the lawn," etc. Other relations are 
expressed by "of," " during," "with," " after," and " before." 

The word "by" in 2 shows the relation between the 
noun "train" and the verb "came" (came how .^^ by the 
train). In this case the relation is that of manner. 

"During" in 3 shows the relation (time) between "week" 
and " will remain." 

" Of " in 4 shows the relation (material) between " wood " 
and "block." 

" Behind " in the same sentence shows the relation (place) 
between " wheel " and " was placed." 

Each of these words, "on," ''by," "during," "of," and 
" behind," is placed before a noun and shows the relation of 
that noun to some other word. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 25 

All such words are called Prepositions. A preposition may 
be used in the same way with pronouns also, as in the sen- 
tences '' Please sit by me/' '' He is behind you." 

A preposition is a word placed before a noun or pronoun to show 
its relation to some other word. 

The noun or pronoun used with a preposition is called 
its object. Thus, in the above sentences, "desk," ''train," 
''week," ''wood," and "wheel" are objects of prepositions. 

28. EXERCISES 

\. Construct sentences using the following prepositions : 

of from after around between 

to with under before without 

in into among beyond through 

by upon beside toward beneath 

n. Fill the following blanks with appropriate prepositions 
from the foregoing list : 

1. The dog ran them. 

2. The bear came me. 

3. We walked the trees. 

4. I think we shall go him. 

5. The flowers grew the brook. 

6. I had a message my brother. 

7. The little boys ran the house. 

8. supper we went the town. 

9. We gathered the apples the trees. 

10. He stood the fire a long time. 

11. I found the flowers the mill the river. 

12. The children the city like to go the country. 

Point out the word with which each preposition connects 
its object. 



26 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

III. Twelve of the words in the story of the crow (20, I) 
are used as prepositions. Point them out and tell between 
what words they show the relation. 

29. Conjunctions. 

1. The day is stormy. 2. I shall go to school. 3. Oranges are 
sour. 4. Lemons are sour. 5. He eats with a knife and fork. 
6. He is going to London and to Paris. 7. I will go. 8. It is a 
pleasant day. 9. He walks slowly because he is ill. 10. The boys 
run and shout. 

Combine in one sentence i and 2 by the use of '' but." 

Make one sentence of 3 and 4, using but once the words 
''are sour." What two words are connected in the sentence 
that you have made ? 

What two words are connected in 5 ? 

What and how are two groups of words connected in 6 ? 

Combine in one sentence 7 and 8 by the use of ''if." 

What two groups of words are connected by "because" 
in 9 ? 

What two words are connected by " and " in 10 .? 

These connecting words "but," "and," "if," and "be- 
cause " are called Conjunctions. 

They do not show relation in the same way that prepo- 
sitions do. Their principal use is that of connecting words 
or groups of words. 

When two sentences are connected so as to form a single 
sentence, the two parts composing the sentence are called 
Propositions or Clauses. Thus, if the two sentences "I re- 
mained at home," " I was ill," are joined together by the 
conjunction "and," there is formed one sentence. What is 
it ? What are the two propositions or clauses ? The two prop- 
ositions might be connected by the conjunction "because"; 



PARTS OF SPEECH 27 

but in this case the proposition introduced by ''because" is 
called ''dependent,'' because it depends upon some part of 
the other proposition. You will learn later about the different 
uses of conjunctions. 

Sometimes a group of words that is not a sentence is joined 
with another group of words that is also not a sentence ; 
as, for example, in the sentence '' He was a man of honor 
dSi^ of wealthy Here ''of honor" and "of wealth" are 
groups of words, not sentences, connected by the conjunction 
"and." Such groups of words, as you will see more clearly 
later, are called Phrases. 

Single words may be connected by a conjunction even 
though they are modified by other words. For example, in 
the sentence " Jack is a very large and thoroughly good dog," 
the conjunction "and" connects the two adjectives "large" 
and " good." 

Sometimes a proposition is introduced by such conjunc- 
tions as "if," "because," "that," as in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. I shall go ^it is pleasant. 2. He remained at home because 
he was ill. 3. I believe that he is sincere. 4. We shall go tmless it 
rains. 5. They did not leave luitil the storm was over. 6. It is 
doubtful whether he will go. 7. Please write your name in my 
album l)efore you go. 8. He will do as his brother does. 

The conjunctions most frequently used are : 

and because if that until 

after before nor though whether 

as but or unless yet 

Sometimes such adverbs as "when," "where," "why," 
" how," and " therefore " are used as conjunctions, as in the 
following sentences : 



28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

He did not tell us where he went. 

Please explain to me why you left. 

I shall return ivhen it stops raining. 

Please show me hotu you solved the problem. 

I had an engagement, therefore I could not accept. 

Two conjunctions are sometimes used together as one^ as 
in the sentence '' He was both poor and honest." Here 
'' poor " and '' honest " are connected by '' both — and." 
''Either — or" and ''neither — nor" are used in the same 
way in the following sentences : 

Either he or I will do the work. 
You must either go or sit quietly. 
It is neither one thing nor the other. 

What do the conjunctions connect in the above sentences ? 

30. EXERCISE 

Point out the conjunctions and tell what they connect. 

1. James and John may go. 

2. This apple is large and ripe. 

3. Will she ride or walk ? 

4. You may go but I will stay. 

5. I will remain if you will [remain]. 

6. Mary was absent because she was ill. 

7. William and I left after the lecture was over. 

8. William and I left after the lecture. 

9. Is North America or South America the larger continent ? 

10. He was dismissed for laziness and dishonesty. 

11. He was dismissed for laziness and for dishonesty. 

12. Neither Thomas nor his brother could go. 

13. As he was running down hill, he fell. 

14. I believe that it will be pleasant and that we can go. 

15. I do not know when I shall leave. 

16. Give thanks unto the Lord, for He is good. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 29 

Observe carefully the use of '' after "in 7 and 8. In which 
sentence is it used as a preposition ? 

What part of speech is '' for " in 10 and 1 1 ? Can you use 
''for" as a conjunction (see 16)? In place of what other 
conjunction may it be used? 

31. Interjections. 

Oh ! how sad it all is ! 
Bravo ! you have done well. 
Hurrah ! our side has won the day. 

Point out the sentences. What word in each expression 
forms no part of the sentence ? How is each of these words 
used ? Such words are called Interjections, from a Latin word 
meaning ''thrown between." 

An interjection is a word or sound which expresses strong feeling 
and which does not form any part of a sentence. 

Use expressions which include the following interjections : 

alas ah pshaw hurrah 

behold pooh hey heigh-ho 

Point out the sentences and interjections in the following : 

1. Alas ! poor Yorick ! 

2. Bah ! Bah ! black sheep, 

Have you any wool ? 

3. Help! help! I am sinking! 

4. What ! Is it so bad as that ? 

5. '^ Bravo ! " the king cried out. 

6. Heigh-ho ! daisies and buttercups. 

7. O velvet bee ! you 're a dusty fellow. 

8. Shame ! How dare you treat him so ? 

9. Hush ! 't is the minstrel in the bower. 

10. And lo ! Ben Adhem's name led all the rest. 



30 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



32, EXERCISES 

I. Tell the part of speech of each word in the sentences 
given in 18, I. 

II. Name the part of speech of each italicized word in the 
following sentences : 

1. He always di'ea77is pleasant dreams. 

2. Some d(y people enjoy the country more than count7y people 
enjoy the city. 

3. {a) How forcible are ;7^/// words ! (//) I see the 7'ight and I 
approve it too. {c) We cannot right the wrong if we try. (^) We 
should try to live fight. 

4. .(a) The stars are above us. {h) ^^ Above '^ in the above 
sentence is a preposition, {c) Will you go above or will you 
stay below ? 

5. I shall caliy^r you^ for I think it will rain. 

6. (ci) Please give me a little, (b) He was a /itt/e boy. (c) It 
matters /itt/e which way you go. 

7. (a) I second the motion, (b) I will go in a second, (c) He 
lives in the second house. 

8. I /eft the book on the /eft side. 

9. {a) Have you a /ig/it in your room ? (fi) He had a tight over- 
coat, (f) Will you please tight the way for me ? 

10. {a) He is sti// here. (U) The sti// was destroyed, (f) The 
room was very sti//. (d) No one can sti// the waves. 

11. (a) They /<:?/;^/ with 2, paint brush, (f?) The pai7it is white. 

12. (a) We walked /// and down, (b) They took dow7t the bars. 
(c) He went dow7i the street, {d) It was made of down, (e) It was 
a dow7i grade, {f) The up train was late. 

13. (a) He has a better book than I. (b) They do the work better 
than we. (<f) You cannot better that if you try. 

14. (^) It was groiuid coffee that I wanted, (fi) The grotmd \s 
hard to cultivate, (if) He ^r^///2<^ the grain fine. 



turn 


run 


clean 


roast 


warm 


blind 



PARTS OF SPEECH 3 1 

III. Use each of the following words in sentences as dif- 
ferent parts of speech : 

talk full guide 

calm much before 

open sound around 

Note. For the use of words in different relations, see App. I. 

IV. Name the part of speech of each word and give its use. 
Find the sentences and tell the kind of each. 

Note to Teachers. Some of the relations may be too difficult for 
the pupils at this stage. Such may be reviewed later. Sometimes pupils 
are assisted in naming the part of speech of a word by using it in a 
familiar sentence or by using a synonym. 

1. I shot an arrow into the air, 

It fell to earth, I knew not where. 

2. I come from haunts of coot and hern. 

3. The gentle rain refreshed the thirsty flowers. 

4. The birds are silent and so is the bee. 

5. The sun is creeping up steeple and tree. 

6. The doves have flown to the sheltering eaves. 
And the nests are dark with the drooping leaves. 

7. By the shores of Gitchie-Gumee, 
By the shining Big-^ea- Water, 
Stood the wigwam of Nokomis. 

8. There the wrinkled old Nokomis 
Nursed the little Hiawatha. 

9. Many things Nokomis taught him 
Of the stars that shine in heaven. 

10. Blessed is the man that endure th temptation : for whe'n he 
is tried, he shall receive the crown of hfe. 

11. The moon that once was round and full 

Is now a silver boat. 

12. The days are cold, the nights are long, 
The north wind sings a doleful song. 



32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

13. The clouds are scudding across the moon, 

A misty light is on the sea ; 
The wind in the shrouds has a wintry tune, 
And the foam is flying free. 

14. '' Come little leaves," said the wind one day, 
" Come over the meadows with me, and play. 
Put on your dresses of red and gold ; — 
Summer is gone, and the days grow cold." 

15. Between the dark and the daylight. 

When the night is beginning to lower. 
Comes a pause in the day's occupations, 
* That is known as the Children's Hour. 

16. Yet whenever I cross the river 

On its bridge with wooden piers. 
Like the odor of brine from the ocean 
Comes the thought of other years. 

17. Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition : 
By that sin fell the angels ; how can man, then. 
The image of his Maker, hope to win by it ? 



CHAPTER III 

SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 

33. The Subject and Predicate of a Declarative Sentence. 

1. This snow melts in the sun. 

2. The boys of our team played well. 

3. I intend to go to the city to-morrow. 

4. Washington is called the Father of his Country. 

5. The soldiers upon both sides fought bravely. 

(i) If we examine carefully each of the above sentences, 
we find that it has two parts, — one part telling what is talked 
about, and another part asserting something. 

For example, in i '' this snow " tells of a certain substance 
about w^hich something is asserted. These words taken to- 
gether are called the Subject. The other part of the sentence, 
''melts in the sun," asserts something of what is named by 
the subject, and is called the Predicate. 

The subject of a declarative sentence represents that about which 
something is asserted. 

The predicate of a declarative sentence is that part which declares 
or asserts. 

What is the subject of 2, and why ? What is the predicate, 
and why ? 

In the same manner speak of the subject and predicate of 
the other sentences. 

(2) It is sometimes easier to find first the predicate or 
asserting part of the sentence and then to find the subject 

33 



34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

by asking the question Who ? or What ? For example, in 
2 the asserting part or predicate is clearly seen to be 
''played well." The subject is ascertained by asking '' Who 
played well ? " 

It may help you at first to see the relation of subject and 
predicate more clearly if you separate the two parts of the 
sentence by a line, thus : 

This snow | melts in the sun. 

The other sentences will appear as follows : 

Subject Predicate 



The boys of our team 

I 

Washington 

The soldiers upon both sides 



played well. 

intend to go to the city to-morrow, 
is called the Father of his Country, 
fought bravely. 



(3) You observe that the subject in every one of the above 
sentences precedes the predicate. This is the natural order 
in declarative sentences, but sometimes the predicate pre- 
cedes the subject, as in the sentence 

In that village lived a good-natured fellow. 

The subject and predicate of this sentence more clearly 
appear when the order of words is changed thus : 

A good-natured fellow lived in that village. 

Point out the subject and predicate of the following sentences: 

1. Very bright and sunny was the morning. 

2. Into the valley of death rode the six hundred. 

3. By the side of the brook grew a beautiful flower. 

4. Far upward in the mellow light rose the blue hills. 

Note to Teachers. It may be well here to place before the pupils 
several simple sentences for practice in finding the subject and predicate. 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 35 

(4) '' It " is used in an impersonal way as subject in such 

sentences as 

It is they. 
It is raining. 
It grows dark. 

The same word is also used merely as an expletive (from 
a Latin word meaning ''to fill in") in such a sentence as 

It is wrong to steal. 

Here the verbal noun ''to steal" is the real subject, as appears 
when the equivalent sentence is given, 

To steal is wrong. 
The same use of " it " appears in the following sentences : 

It is sad to see him looking so ill. 
It is unsafe for him to go out now. 
It is possible that he will not return. 

The predicates of these sentences are "is sad," "is un- 
safe," and "is possible," and when the questions are asked 
" What is sad .? " " What is unsafe } " and " What is pos- 
sible } " the subjects readily appear as follows : 

To see him looking so ill is sad. 
For him to go out now is unsafe. 
That he will not returji is possible. 

(5) The word " there " is used as an expletive in such a 
sentence as 

There once lived in this town a celebrated man named Brown. 

By a change in the order of words, the natural order of sub- 
ject and predicate will appear as follows : 

A celebrated man named Brown I once lived in this town. 



36 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Point out the subject and predicate of the following sen- 
tences : 

There was a sound of revelry by night. 
There are in town many men of means. 
There came to the village a gang of gypsies. 

34. EXERCISE 

In the following blanks supply subjects or predicates so as 
to make complete declarative sentences : 

Note. Some of the blanks call for several words as, for example, in 1 3 : 
" The mountains of Switzerland are noted for their beautiful scenery." 

1. Burns, the poet, . 



2. Abraham Lincoln . 

3. There are at present . 

4. are found in New Mexico. 

5. are noted for their bravery. 

6. Beside the river there dwelt , 

7. The first English settlement 

8. Once upon a time there was 



9. The largest city of the world . 

10. explored the great Northwest. 

11. is the capital of South Carohna. 

12. wrote '' The Vision of Sir Launfal." 

13. are noted for their beautiful scenery 

14. A great earthquake in San Francisco 



15. were prominent generals in the Revolutionary War. 

35. Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate, i. In 

the sentence ''This large maple tree grows here rapidly," the 
word which tells what grows here is ''tree." This word is 
called the Simple Subject. It is limited by the words "this," 
"large," and "maple," which tell what tree is micant. All 



SUBJECT AND PREDICATE 37 

these words, ''This large maple tree," taken together are 
called the Complete Subject. 

2. The only word in the above sentence which asserts 
is '' grows." This word is called the Simple Predicate. It 
is modified by the adverbs ''here" and "rapidly." The 
simple predicate with all its modifiers is called the Com- 
plete Predicate. 

3. The simple subject and simple predicate sometimes 
consist of more than one word, as in the following sentences : 

George Washington was called the Father of his Country. 
^^ Little Women " was written by Louisa Alcott. 

4 . When the terms ' ' subj ect ' ' and ' ' predicate ' ' are used they 
generally refer to the simple subject and simple predicate. 

5. Point out the simple subject and simple predicate in 
each of the following sentences : 

1. Our school went on a picnic. 2. The younger boys built a fire. 
3. The older boys brought the water. 4. Two of the girls made 
the coffee. 5. The other girls set the table. 6. We played games 
after supper. 7. Some of us were very lame the next day. 8. W^e 
shall go again next month. 9. There will be a larger party then. 

It will be noticed that in all the above sentences except 
one, the simple predicate consists of a verb alone. 

In which sentences is a verb phrase used ? (See 23, 2.) 

In 7 the simple predicate consists of the verb " were " and 
another word " lame." What part of speech is " lame," and 
what does it limit ? 

Sentences 6 and 7 might read, "After supper we played 
games," "The next day some of us were very lame." Do 
these changes in the order of words change the complete 
predicate ? 



38 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

What is the simple predicate in the sentence '' Into the 
valley of death rode the six hundred " ? What is the simple 
subject? 

Point out the simple subject and the simple predicate of 
each sentence in 18, I. 

36. Compound Subject and Compound Predicate, i. Some- 
times two or more simple subjects having the same predicate 
are connected, as, for example, ''William and I go to 
school." In this sentence ''William and I" is called the 
Compound Subject. 

Two or more simple subjects of a sentence having the same pred- 
icate are called the compound subject. 

2. wSometimes two or more simple predicates having the 
same subject are connected, as in the sentence " Mr. Brown 
arose and addressed the meeting." " Arose and addressed " 
is the Compound Predicate. 

Two or more simple predicates of a sentence having the same 
subject are called the compound predicate. 

3. Point out the compound subject and compound predi- 
cate in the following sentences : 

1. Charity suffereth long and is kind. 

2. Jack fell down and broke his crown. 

3. All work and no play make Jack a dull boy. 

4. The sun rises in the east and sets in the west. 

5. They merrily laugh and play in the school yard. 

6. Jack and Jill went up the hill after a pail of water. 

7. A president and secretary of the meeting were elected. 

8. Mr. Smith and his brother called and brought us good news. 

9. Washington went to Cambridge and took command of the 
army. 



37. EXERCISE 

Point out the complete subject, complete predicate, simple 
or compound subject, and simple or compound predicate in 
each of the following sentences : 

1. These boys study. 

2. These boys study their lessons. 

3. These boys study their lessons in school. 

4. The boys of this school study their lessons. 

5 . The boys of this grammar school study their lessons faithfully. 

6. The soldiers fought bravely. 

7. The soldiers on both sides fought bravely all day. 

8. The soldiers and sailors on both sides fought bravely. 

9. They fought bravely and afterwards returned to their 
homes. 

10. Strict integrity and unswerving loyalty were characteristics 
of the man. 

11. In Him we live, and move, and have our being. 

12. The death of Lincoln caused deep sorrow throughout the 
country. 

13. Nine hundred millions of dollars is expended annually for 
intoxicating liquors. 

14. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

15. Over me soared the eternal sky. 

16. Full on this casement shone the wintry moon. 

17. Cowards die many times before their death. 

18. In my Father's house are many mansions. 

19. Unto the pure all things are pure. 

20. There is no roya\ road to learning. 

21. Virtuous youth brings forth accomplished and flourishing 
manhood. 

22. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. 

23. By the street of By-and-by, you will reach a house called 
Never. 



40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

24. Abou Ben Adhem awoke one night and saw an angel writ- 
ing in a book. 

25. There were seen, side by side, the greatest painter and the 
greatest scholar of the age. 

26. It is a noble and beautiful thing to find ourselves growing 
out of our contempts. 

38. The Subject and Predicate of an Interrogative Sentence. 

Construct ten interrogative sentences and point out the sub- 
ject and predicate of each sentence. 

Sometimes the subject and predicate of an interrogative 
sentence are more clearly seen by changing the order of 
words, as in the sentences 

Where is the boy ? The boy is where ? 

Whose pencil have you ? You have whose pencil ? 

In such a change the subjects '' boy " and '' you " are clearly 
seen. 

The simple predicate of an interrogative sentence is fre- 
quently a verb phrase, the parts of which are separated by 
the subject, as in the sentence ''When did your cousin 
arrive ? " Here '' did arrive " is the simple predicate and 
''your cousin" is the complete subject. These parts can be 
readily seen by changing the sentence so as to read "Your 
cousin did arrive when ? " Change the order of words in 
the sentence "When will the executive committee meet.?" 
so as to show that "the executive committee" is the com- 
plete subject and "will meet when" is the complete predi- 
cate. What is the simple subject of this sentence ? What is 
the simple predicate ? 

In the same way find the complete subject and simple sub- 
ject, the complete predicate and simple predicate of the fol- 
lowing sentences : 



1. Where have you been ? 

2. Am I my brother's keeper ? 

3. When will your cousins arrive ? 

4. What are the wild waves saying ? 

5. A wounded spirit, who can bear? 

6. By which road did the army retreat ? 

7. Why art thou cast down, O my soul ? 

8. Why did the workmen not come sooner ? 

9. How does God reveal himself in nature ? 

10. Where are the boys and girls this morning? 

11. Wherewith shall a young man cleanse his way ? 

12. When will they come and do the work assigned them ? 

Construct ten interrogative sentences relating to your 
geography or history lesson and point out the subject and 
predicate of each sentence. 

39. The Subject and Predicate of an Imperative Sentence. 
The subject of an imperative sentence is generally under- 
stood, as in the sentence '' Come here." The word ''thou" 
or ''you" understood, meaning the person addressed, is the 
subject. 

When the name of the person addressed is given, it is 
really no part of the sentence, as in "John, come here." 
"John" in this case has no relation to any word of the 
sentence. 

What is the subject and predicate of each of the following 

sentences ? 

1. Forward, march. 

2. Do not go so soon. 

3. Boys, pass out quietly. 

4. To thine own self be true. 

5. Please close the door, Mary. 

6. Go to the ant, thou sluggard. 

7. Sweep before your own door. 



42 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

8. Rejoice not in another's misfortune. 

9. Pardon me for my seeming rudeness. 

10. Suffer little children to come unto me. 

11. Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace. 

12. Build thee more stately mansions, O my soul ! 

13. Love thyself last ; cherish those hearts that hate thee. 

40. The Subject and Predicate of an Exclamatory Sen- 
tence. Point out the subject and predicate of each of the 
following sentences and state whether it is declarative, in- 
terrogative, or imperative in form : ^ ^ 

1. What a pleasant time we had ! 

2. Was it not a glorious sunset ! 

3. The boy, oh, where was he ! 

4. May I never see the like again ! 

5. Blow, winds, and crack your cheeks ! 

6. What a piece of work is man ! 

7. Lovely art thou, O Peace ! 

8. Lo ! how all things fade and perish ! 

9. O, what a fall was there, my countrymen ! 

10. How excellent is thy name in all the earth ! 

11. Make me a child again just for to-night ! 

12. Give me of your balm, O fir tree ! 

In many of the above sentences the subject and predicate 
will stand out more clearly if you transpose them, as '' We 
had what a pleasant time ! " etc. 

41. EXERCISE 

Analyze each of the following sentences by telling (i) the 
kind of sentence, (2) the complete subject, (3) the simple or 
compound subject, (4) the complete predicate, (5) the simple 
or compound predicate. 



Name also the part of speech of each word. 

Note. It may be found necessary to omit for the present the more 
difficult sentences. 

1. This is the forest primeval. 

2. Still sits the schoolhouse by the road. 

3. A soft answer turneth away wrath. 

4. Every cloud has a silver lining. 

5. Great oaks from little acorns grow. 

6. How far that little candle throws its beams ! 

7. Give me another horse ! bind up my wounds ! 

8. Down swept the chill wind from the mountain peak. 

9. Can Honor's voice provoke the silent dust ? 

10. The plowman homeward plods his weary way. 

11. Him the Almighty Power hurled headlong. 

12. Friends, Romans, Countrymen ! lend me your ears ! 

13. Elevate the working class by keeping your children in it. 

14. Turner could put infinite space into a square inch of sky. 

15. O that a man might know the end of this day's business ! 

16. Simplicity in dress and manners indicates a refined mind. 

17. O Liberty! how many crimes have been committed in thy 
name ! 

18. Time and patience will change the mulberry leaf to satin. 

19. The consciousness of duty performed gives us music at 
midnight. 

20. In the lexicon of youth there 's no such word 2.^ fail. 

21. I heard from the boughs the sweet notes of a nightingale. 

22. O that we had spent one day in this world thoroughly well ! 

23. Gone was the glow from his cheek and the fire from 
his eye. 

24. We heard the moaning of the wind and the patter of 
the rain. v 

25. Sweetly over the village the bell of the Angelus sounded. 

26. At the door on summer evenings 
Sat the little Hiawatha. 



44 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

27. Under a spreading chestnut tree 

The village smithy stands. 

28. On sunny slope and beechen swell, 
The shadowed light of evening fell. 

29. Down in the green and shady bed 

A modest violet grew. 

30. Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest, 
Come I to speak in Caesar's funeral. 

31. Remorseless Time ! 

What power can stay him in his silent course ! 

32. The clouds in bars of rusty red 

Along the hilltops glow. 

33. The wind ! the wind ! it well may charm 

The rudest soul to rest. 

34. Down the street with laughter and shout, 
Glad in the freedom of school let out. 

Come the boys. 



CHAPTER IV 

OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS 

Note to Teachers. Before taking up the work of this chapter, it 
may be advisable to teach the transitive verb as given in 115. It will 
not. however, be necessary to do so. 

42. Direct Objects of Verbs. In the sentence ''The man 
walks," a complete thought is expressed; that is, no other 
word or words are needed to complete the sense. But there 
are some verbs expressing action which seem to require a 
word to name the receiver of the act expressed by the verb. 
For example, if one says, " The man built," the hearer feels 
that the statement is unfinished and naturally asks, '' Built 
wJiatf The statement is completed by adding ''houses," 
which is said to be the object of "built." In the sentence 
" The man built houses," the verb " built " denotes an action, 
which implies the doer of the act as well as the receiver of it. 
The doer in this case is expressed by the subject "man" 
and the receiver is expressed by the object "houses." The 
object of a verb used in this way is ascertained by asking 
the question Wliat ? or Whom ? 

The term "receiver" of the action expressed by the verb 
should be interpreted to mean both the object and the 7rs?ilt 
of the action. Thus each of the following italicized words 
m.ay be considered as receiver of an act and, therefore, object 
of a verb. Name the verb in each sentence that takes an 
object to complete its meaning. 

45 



46 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

1. Did you see mel 

2. They will meet us, 

3. We dusted the room. 

4. My mother makes //^i*. 
6. She was writing a letter. 

6. John broke the window. 

7. Tom caught €\^t fishes. 

8. I have learned the lesson. 

9. The bird has built a nest. 

10. They made a great 7ioise. 

11. He manufactures fine shoes. 

In the following blanks supply objects with or without 
limiting words : 

1. I am reading . 

2. Did you see . 

3. James will study . 



4. The boys are playing . 

5. They make at school. 

6. She wore at the party. 

7. I found in the garden. 

8. My brother met yesterday. 

9. My cat caught in the pantry. 

The object of a verb usually follows the verb, but some- 
times the verb follows its object, as in the sentence 
That charge I deny. 

The object of '' deny " in this sentence is '' charge." Why 1 
What is the object of the verb '' are reading" in the sen- 

^^^^^ What book are you reading ? 

Point out the object of each verb in the following sentences : 

1. We have lost our dog. 

2. I have bought three books. 

3. Some one has borrowed my pencil. 



OBJECTS AXD COMPLEMENTS 47 

4. Who wrote *' David Copperfield " ? 

5. Children should obey their parents. 

6. What books shall we take with us ? 

7. I will meet you at the railroad station. 

8. The pupils of this school study grammar. 

9. The Erench made many settlements in Canada. 

10. We must learn our lessons before we go home. 

11. I think I saw William at the concert last evening. 

12. Remember now thy Creator in the days of thy youth. 

43. Indirect Objects of Verbs. In the sentence " John gave 
William a book," "book" is the object of "gave" because 
it denotes the receiver of the act expressed by "gave." 
''William" also denotes the receiver of the act, but in an 
indirect way. He gave not "William/" but something "to 
William . ' ' 

In the sentence " He bought me a knife/' what word de- 
notes the direct receiver of the act (bought zc/iat ?) ? What 
word denotes the indirect receiver of the act (bought for 
whom ?) ^ Both " knife " and " me " are objects of the verb 
"bought." 

To distinguish bet^veen these two kinds of objects, one is 
called the Direct Object, and the other the Indirect Object. The 
direct object as has been said, answers the question What? 
or Whom ? The indirect object generally answers the ques- 
tion To zuhat? or To z^hiom? 2ind Fo?' zuhat? ox For zihiom?^ 
The objective relation of the indirect object of a verb is often 
indicated by the use of the preposition "to" or "for." Thus, 
instead of saying, ''He gave me a book," "He brought her a 
chair," we could say, "He gave a book to me," "He brought 
a chair for her." 

1 Following the verb "ask" the indirect object answers the question 
Of luhat ? or Of li'honi ? as in the sentence '' He asked me a question.'" 



48 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The following examples of indirect object will show its use 
in the sentences : 

He handed her his card. 

Please send me a receipt. 

He built his son a house. 

She asked me several questions. 

Will you please lend me your knife. 

His father left him a large sum of money. 

I can ^2.N^ yoii some trouble and expense. 

Observe that in each case the indirect object is found 
between the verb and the direct object. 

44. EXERCISES 

I. Name the direct and indirect objects of the verb in each 
of the following sentences : 

1. Lend me your ears. 

2. Please give me the flower. 

3. He has bought me a book. 

4. Did you offer the man money '^. 

5. Has he brought you your flowers 1 

6. The teacher will tell us many stories. 

7. The treasurer paid the men their wages. 

8. His father left him a large sum of money. 

9. Will you please send me a barrel of flour ? 
10. Has he shown you his collection of stamps ? 

II. The President granted him full pardon last week. 

12. You should have written your mother before this. 

13. George wished his friend many happy returns of the day. 

IL With the following verbs and verb phrases construct 
sentences, each having a direct and an indirect object : 

tell wrote has brought did show 

sent offered can make will teach 

give promised might sell would have paid 



OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS 49 

45. Subjective Complement, i. Some verbs are used alone 
as predicate, as in the sentences 

Birds /j'. 

The boys went out to play. 

But there are some verbs which must have a completing 
part or complemejit to form the simple predicate. Observe 
the verbs in the following sentences : 

1. Grant was a general. 

2. He ivill be our near neighbor. 

3. Harrison became President. 

4. The children ai-e very happy. 

5. The weather continues stormy. 

6. They appeared quite cordial. 

The subject and verb alone in these sentences do not tell 
anything. '' Grant was/' ''He will be," '' Harrison became," 
etc., are clearly incomplete expressions. To form a predicate 
which asserts or tells something in each of these expressions, 
a word must be added to the verb ; thus we have '' was gen- 
eral," ''will be neighbor," etc. The added word is called a 
complement of the verb because it completes the predicate. 
It is called a Subjective Complement because it belongs or refers 
to the subject. The subjective complements in the above 
sentences are " general," '' neighbor," "President," " happy," 
"stormy," and "cordial." What part of speech is each of 
these w^ords t 

When the subjective complement is a noun it is called a 
Predicate Noun; when it is an adjective it is called a Predicate 
Adjective. 

Point out the simple predicate in each sentence. 

2. It will be seen from the above sentences that the predi- 
cate noun or adjective is a very important part of the predicate. 



50 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

the verb serving mainly as a connective to join the noun or 
adjective to the subject. Because it is a kind of coupler this 
connecting verb is called a copula or copulative verb} 

3. The use of these parts of a sentence is shown by the 
following outline : 





SIMPLE 


SIMPLE PREDICATE 




SUBJECT 


COPULATIVE PREDICATE NOUN OR 
ADJECTIVE 


(John's) 


rabbits 


are (very) 


tame 


(The) 


boy 


has been (a) 


truant 


(These) 


violets 


smell . 


sweet 




He 


became (a) 


soldier 


(The lady's) 


dress 


looks 


bright and fresh 



Copy the above outline and explain each term used by 
giving examples of your own. 

The following verbs in some of their uses are copulative : 

appear be (am, are, is, was, were, etc.) 

continue look seem sound 

feel remain smell taste 

Use these words in sentences with predicate nouns or 
adjectives. 

You observe that the copulative may be a verb phrase and 
that the subjective complement may consist of two or more 
predicate nouns or adjectives connected by a conjunction. 

46. EXERCISES 

I. Point out in the following sentences the copulatives 
and subjective complements. State in each case whether 
the subjective complement is a noun or adjective. 

1 When such a connecting verb is some form of the verb " be " it is 
usually called the copula ; but any verb used with a complement to form 
the predicate may be called a copitlative verb or simply a copulative. 



OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS 51 

1. My cousins are quiet people. 

2. The bell sounded very loud. 

3. The weather may be unpleasant. 

4. The boatman still remains my friend. 

5. One of the boys became unconscious. 

6. The workmen seemed extremely tired. 

7. My brother continues quite ill w^ith fever. 

8. The flowers by the roadside look beautiful. 

9. She felt very sorry for the unfortunate sailor. 

10. The man has been a very good friend of mine. 

11. Every one of the pupils should be perfectly frank. 

12. She might have been the first scholar in her class. 

13. George Washington w^as once a surveyor in Virginia. 

14. The general was always a good friend to the soldiers. 

15. The food tasted good to him after being away so long. 

II. Construct five sentences with predicate nouns and five 
sentences with predicate adjectives. 

47. EXERCISES 

I. Analyze the following sentences by pointing out the 
(i) complete subject ; (2) simple subject; (3) complete predi- 
cate; (4) simple predicate ; (5) copulative and subjective com- 
plement, if any ; (6) direct and indirect objects, if any. 

Note to Teachers. At this point in the analysis of sentences, at- 
tention should be called to elliptical sentences, or those sentences in 
which one or more words have to be supplied or regarded as understood 
before the right construction of some words can be known. The omis- 
sions should at first be supplied by the teacher, but the pupils should be 
led to supply them in sentences increasingly difficult. 

1. My name is Nerval. 

2. The best is yet to be. 

3. John Gilpin w^as a citizen. 

4. Hunger is the best sauce. 



52 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

6. Man became a living soul. 

6. A burnt child dreads the fire. 

7. A beggar through the world am I. 

8. A rolling stone gathers no moss. 

9. Give me three grains of corn, mother. 

10. The way of transgressors is hard. 

11. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

12. Love covereth a multitude of sins. 

13. A thing of beauty is a joy forever. 

14. The borrower is servant to the lender. 

15. The groves were God's first temples. 

16. Books were his passion and delight. 

17. The soldier lay lifeless but beautiful. 

18. My wedding-bell rings merry in my ear. 

19. He looks a sachem in red blanket wrapt. 

20. All looks yellow to the jaundiced eye. 

21. Strong reasons make strong actions. 

22. Continual dropping wears away a stone. 

23. A man's reach should exceed his grasp. 

24. Temperance and labor are the two best physicians. 

25. Never sound the trumpet of your own praise. 

26. The best teachers of humanity are the lives of great men. 

27. Modesty is beauty's crown, admirable alike in old and young. 

28. The fear of the Lord is the beginning of wisdom. 

29. Soft and pale is the moony beam, 
Moveless still is the glassy stream. 

30. November's sky is chill and drear, 
November's leaf is red and sear. 

31. Good name in man or woman, dear my lord, 
Is the immediate jewel of their souls. 

32. Righteousness exalteth a nation ; but sin is a reproach to 
any people. 

33. Reading maketh a full man, conference a ready man, and 
writing an exact man. 



OBJECTS AND COMPLEMENTS 53 

34. My golden spurs now bring to me, 
And bring to me my richest mail. 

35. I hear in the chamber above me 

The patter of little feet, 
The sound of a door that is opened, 
And voices soft and sweet. 

36. The hearts of men are their books ; events are their tutors ; 
great actions are their eloquence. 

37. I have but one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that 
is the lamp of experience. I know of no way of judging of the 
future but by the past. 

II. Point out the subjects, objects, and complements of 
verbs in the following paragraphs : 

'^ Have I ever met you before ? " 

'^ Often, for I am your beggar. I was the poor man at the foot 
of the road to your castle. You used to give me alms. I held out 
my hand, you saw the hand only, and you dropped in it the alms 
which I needed in the morning to keep me from dying of hunger 
at night. Sometimes a sou saved my life. I owe you my life. I 
pay the debt." 

He took off his hat, turned up the rim, broke a long dr\^ thorn 
from a furze bush, drew a white cockade from his pocket, fastened 
the brim and the cockade back to the crown of the hat with the 
thorn, and, putting the hat on his head again so that the raised 
rim showed his forehead and his cockade, he said in a loud voice : 

^^ I am the man you are seeking. I am the Marquis de Latenac, 

Prince of Brittany, Lieutenant-General of the armies of the King. 

Make an end of it." 

Victor Hugo's "Ninety-Three" 



CHAPTER V 

PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES 

48. Participles and Infinitives. 

1. I saw my brother walking by. 

2. The workmen having finished went away. 

3. She wishes to go by the next train. 

4. Rowing made the boys very lame. 

(i) We see that the itaHcized words in the above sentences 
express action and therefore are Hke verbs ; but they are un- 
hke verbs in not assej^ting action as the verbs which you have 
learned about do. These words are also unlike verbs because 
they are used like other parts of speech. ''Walking" in 
I limits the noun ''brother/' and so is used like an adjec- 
tive. In the same way "having finished" in 2 is used like 
an adjective because it limits the noun " workmen." These 
two expressions, "walking" and " having finished, " because 
they partake of the nature of both verbs and adjectives are 
called Participles. 

(2) In 3 "to go" is used as the object of "wishes," and is 
therefore used like a noun. "Rowing" in 4 is also used 
like a noun because it is the subject of the sentence. These 
verbal expressions are used as nouns and are called Infinitives. 

Observe the use of the following italicized expressions and 
tell which of them are participles and which are infinitives.^ 

1 This exercise relates only to naming participles and infinitives in 
common use. Their kinds and uses will be considered in later sections 
(see 131-133). 

54 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES 55 

1. My dog likes to play. 

2. FIayi?ig ball is good fun. 

3. He enjoys walkmg in the woods. 

4. The \iOy^ playing in the yard were noisy. 

5. To practice so long becomes tiresome. 

6. Having practiced two hours he went out. 

7. The child 7'U7i7iing very fast fell down. 

8. A man nained Robinson rescued the boy. 

9. Bei?ig good workmen, they were selected. 

10. He wanted to spend all his money for candy. 

11. He regretted spendiitg all his money. 

12. The governor rode by, bowing to the right and left. 

13. I saw a bird called a flicker. 

14. I am very fond of reading books of history. 

15. The man was arrested for steali?ig a bicycle. 

16. The weather being unpleasant, he decided not to go, 

49. Clauses and Phrases Defined. 

1 . I hope that I cafi go. 

2. Why he is he?'e is a mystery. 

3. He is a gentleman who has great wealth. 

4. He is a geiitleman and he has gixat wealth. 

5. He is a gentleman of great wealth. 

6. I hope to go thejx to-?norrow. 
1 . His being he7^e is a mystery. 

8. The flower grows by the side of the brook. 

By examining carefully the groups of italicized words in 
the first four sentences above, you see, first, that each group 
is a part of a sentence, and secondly, that each group has a 
subject and predicate. Groups of words so used in sentences 
are called Clauses. 

A clause is a group of words forming part of a sentence and 
containing a subject and predicate. 



56 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The groups of italicized words in the last four sentences 
are also parts of sentences, and each group is used just as a 
single part of speech would be used. That is, each group per- 
forms the office of a part of speech. Can you tell which of 
these groups performs the office of a noun ? of an adjective ? 
of an adverb ? Unlike the groups of the first four sentences, 
however, these groups have no subject or predicate. The 
groups indicated in the last four sentences are called Phrases. 

A phrase is a group of words having the use in a sentence of a 
part of speech, but not containing a subject and predicate. 

50. Kinds of Phrases and Clauses, i . Phrases are named 
according to form from the parts of speech introducing them ; 
thus there are : ^ 

a. Prepositional phrases or phrases introduced by a prep- 
osition, as 

The people of the village went to their homes. 

b. Participial phrases or phrases introduced by a parti- 
ciple, as 

Being very weary, I stopped to rest. 

Having accomplished his piupose, he departed. 

c. htfinitive phrases or phrases introduced by an infini- 
tive, as 

He decided to go by the way of Chicago. 

He enjoyed takiiig his exe?rise in the open air. 

2. Phrases and clauses are named according to tise from 
the parts of speech for which they are used. These uses are 
those of nouns, adjectives, and adverbs, as will be seen in 
later sections (see 52-55). 

1 Verb phrases which are explained in 23, 2 are not included in this list 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SEXTENXES 57 

51. EXERCISES 

I. Tell which are phrases and which are clauses in the 
following italicized groups of words : 

1. I know li^hy he went. 

2. He refused to do the n^oj'k. 

3. I shall not go icntil to-jnorrow. 

4. Walking rapidly is good exercise. 

5. He asked luhat hook she was 7'eading. 

6. We saw the girls walking by the river, 

7. Flowers of all kinds grew /;/ the garden. 

8. Before leavifig ho7?ie he finished the work. 

9. Miss Alcott was the author of ''Little JFome/i.'' 

10. A person who has good health may accomplish much. 

II. The boys of Boston complained wheji the soldiers spoiled 
their sliding-places. 

12. Before he left he wrote a letter to his aunt, telling all about 
his hunting expei'ience. 

11. Of the phrases in the above sentences, which are prep- 
ositional } which are participial } which are infinitive } 

III. In the following sentences point out the phrases and 
tell whether thev are participial or infinitive. Point out the 
prepositional phrases. Point out the clauses. 

1. Strive to do your best. 

2. He will leave in the morning. 

3. Hearing a cr}\ she ran to the window. 

4. They who work are generally the happiest. 

5. The boxes made by the pupils look ver}^ well. 

6. He enjoyed ver}^ much going to the theater. 

7. The boys who lived in Boston complained to General Gates. 

8. By walking briskly he managed to keep warm. 

9. What we thoroughly learn cannot be taken from us. 



58 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

10. And children coming home from school 

Look in at the open door. 

11. He goes on Sunday to the church, 

And sits among his boys. 

12. They love to see the flaming forge, 

And hear the bellows roar, 
And catch the burning sparks that fly 
Like chaff from a threshing-floor. 

52. Substantive Phrases and Clauses, i. When a phrase 
is used as a noun it is called a Substantive Phrase or Noun 
Phrase. A substantive or noun phrase may be 

a. The subject of a sentence, as 

To sleep well is a sign of health. 
Talking in the corridors is not allowed. 

b. The object of a verb, as 

He wishes to go home. 
He ^rY\oys playing football. 

The phrases in the above sentences are infinitive phrases. 

Most noun phrases in common use are infinitive phrases. 

2. A clause used as a noun is called a Substantive Clause or 
Noun Clause, and may be used as subject, object, or complement, 
as shown in the following sentences : 

1. This is what I want. 

2. He asked where I went. 

3. That he is honest is evident. 

4. John said that he would go. 

5. It appeared that he told the truth. 

6. What he did has been fully proved. 

State how each of the above clauses is used, whether as 
subject, object, or complement. 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES 59 

A substantive phrase or clause used as the object of a verb 
is called objective. Thus ''to go home," in the sentence 
'' He wishes to go home," is an objective phrase ; and ''that 
he would go," in the sentence "He thought that he would 
go," is an objective clause , 

53. EXERCISE 

Point out the substantive phrases and clauses in the follow- 
ing, and state how they are used, whether as subject, object, 
or subjective complement : 

1. They wanted to play. 

2. That is what I told you. 

3. Out of sight is out of mind. 

4. I dislike very much to do it. 

5. I admit that this is true. 

6. They enjoyed playing the game. 

7. I believe that he told the truth. 

8. He intends to leave home very soon. 

9. The teacher asked who broke the window. 

10. Playing lawn tennis is good exercise. 

11. That you have done wrong is very evident. 

12. We should early learn to control ourselves. 

13. That there should be such a likeness is not strange. 

14. He thought that he would like to ride to town in an auto- 
mobile. 

15. Teach me to feel another's woe, 

To hide the fault I see. 

16. Still achieving, still pursuing, 

Learn to labor and to wait. 

54. Adjective Phrases and Clauses. In the sentence " He 
is a man of sense," the phrase "of sense" limits the noun 
"man" and is therefore an Adjective Phrase. In many cases 



6o ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

the adjective phrase may be replaced by an adjective without 
changing the meaning of the sentence. The above sentence, 
for example, may be changed so as to read, ''He is a sen- 
sible man." We may also change the sentence to '' He is a 
man who has sense." Here '' who has sense " is an Adjective 
Clause. Why ? 

In the sentence '' He is a diligent man," what part of 
speech is ''diligent".? Why.? Change the sentence, using 
a phrase in place of the word " diligent." Change the sen- 
tence, using the clause "who is diligent." What kind of 
clause is it ? Why ? 

Observe the italicized words in the following sentences : 

Mr. Brown employs only honest boys. 
Mr. Brown employs only boys of honesty. 
Mr. Brown employs only boys zvho are honest. 

In the same way use in sentences a phrase and a clause 
which have nearly the same meaning as " industrious." 

An adjective phrase is a phrase used as what part of speech .? 

What is an adjective clause 1 

Point out the adjective phrases and clauses in the following 
sentences : 

1. Coffee from Java is good. 

2. Being very weary, I sat down. 

3. The mountains of Alaska are high. 

4. They were men from the country. 

5. They that are whole have no need of a physician. 

6. Having delivered the message, the man departed. 

7. The men whom you wished to see have gone away. 

" Being very weary " (2) and " having delivered the mes- 
sage " (6) are participial phrases. Why are they called par- 
ticipial phrases } (See 50, i, ^.) 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES 6 1 

55. Adverbial Phrases and Clauses. 

1. The horses ran rapidly. 

2. The horses ran with rapidity. 

The phrase ''with rapidity" in 2 means the same as the 
adverb ''rapidly" in i, and is therefore called an Adverbial 
Phrase. 

In the sentence " We shall go when the train arrives," the 
clause "when the train arrives " teUs zvhen we shall go, and 
is therefore an Adverbial Clause. 

In the sentence " I remained at home because I was ill/' 
point out the adverbial phrase ; point out the adverbial clause. 
What questions do they answer 1 

Point out the adverbial phrases and clauses in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. He will be here in two weeks. 

2. John goes to school on his wheel. 

3. After he finished speaking I left the hall. 

4. We must make hay while the sun shines. 

5. I shall go to the city before he arrives. 

6. Do not go in the boat until the storm is over. 

7. By the side of the road there was a large elm tree. 

8. I was sitting by the window when the procession went by. 

9. The vine still clings to the moldering w^all, 
And at ever)^ gust the dead leaves fall. 

10. I stood on the bridge at midnight, 

As the clocks were striking the hour. 

In 2 there are two adverbial phrases. What questions do 
they answer 1 

Sometimes, as in 7, one phrase includes another. Point 
out these phrases and tell what kind they are. 



62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

56. EXERCISE 

Point out the phrases and clauses, naming the kind of each 
and telHng how it is used in the sentence. 

Model : They laugh that zvin. 

"That win " is an adjective clause limiting the pronoun " they." 

1. They laugh that win. 

2. Bread is the staff of life. 

3. Flowers are the poetry of the earth. 

4. I know not why I am so sad. 

5. The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea. 

6. Those who think must govern those who toil. 

7. When the cat 's away the mice will play. 

8. Uneasy lies the head that wears a crown. 

9. The little bird sits at his door in the sun. 

10. When I was a child I thought as a child. 

11. Fortune brings in some boats that are not steered. 

12. Out of the abundance of the heart the mouth speaketh. 

13. John Gilpin was a citizen 

Of credit and renown. 

14. To every man upon this earth 

Death cometh soon or late. 

15. The western waves of ebbing day 
Rolled o'er the glen their level way. 

16. People that hve in glass houses ought not to throw stones. 

17. Kind words are little sunbeams 

That sparkle as they fall. 

18. The sunset smoldered as we drove 

Beneath the deep hill-shadows. 

19. When Duty whispers low, Thou must, 

The youth replies, I can. 

20. My heart leaps up when I behold 

A rainbow in the sky. 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES 63 

21. The honey-bee's great ambition is to be rich, to lay up large 
stores, to possess the sweet of every flower that blooms. 

22. A fool speaks all his mind, but a wise man reserves some- 
thing for hereafter. 

23. The lark is up to meet the sun. 

The bee is on the wing ; 
The ant its labor has begun. 
The woods with music ring. 

57. Kinds of Sentences according to Form. We have 
learned about different kinds of sentences according to their 
use (6). We shall nov^ see what kinds there are according 
to form. 

1 . Simple Sentences. Observe carefully the following sen- 
" tences wdth reference to the number of clauses in them : 

The weather was pleasant. 

I took a long ride into the country. 

I saw there a great many interesting things. 

Each of these sentences has but one subject and one 
predicate. Point them out. 

A sentence having but one subject and one predicate is called a 
simple sentence. 

2. Co7npottnd Sentences. In the sentence ''The weather 
was pleasant and I took a long ride into the country" there 
are two independent or coordinate clauses. Point them out. 
Why are they called independent } They are called coordi- 
nate because they are of equal rank. By w^hat word are they 
connected to form one sentence 1 What part of speech is 
the connecting word } 

A sentence having two or more independent clauses is called a 
compound sentence. 



64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Construct a compound sentence with the two clauses 
'' Harry went to school," '' William remained at home." 

Point out the independent or coordinate clauses in each 
of the following sentences : 

You may go to school or you may remain at home. 
Thomas may go, but Harry must remain. 
It is very stormy, yet I believe I will go. 
I borrowed a sled and we went coasting. 

The conjunctions ''and," ''or," ''but," ''yet," used in the 
above sentences are called Coordinate Conjunctions. 

3. Complex Sentences. In the sentence " I will go when 
it stops raining," "I will go" is the independent clause. 
" When it stops raining " is the dependent clause and modi- 
fies " will go." It is an adverbial clause. Why } 

In the sentence " I have brought you some flowers which 
grew in my garden," what is the independent clause t What 
is the dependent clause 1 What kind (adjective, objective, or 
adverbial) of clause is it } Why 1 

A sentence that contains a dependent clause is called a complex 
sentence. 

A complex sentence may contain more than one dependent 
clause, as in the sentences 

When he left he said that he would return. 

The man whom I invited told me that he could not go. 

What are the dependent clauses in these sentences 1 
Note. See also 56, sentence 19. 

Point out the complex sentences in 56, naming in each 
sentence the dependent clause. 

The conjunction used to introduce an objective or adverbial 
clause is called a subordinate conjunction. 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES 65 

Name the subordinate conjunctions in 56. 
Note. For other subordinate conjunctions, see 29. 

What part of speech is often used to introduce an adjec- 
tive clause ? Give three examples. 

By means of a relative pronoun or subordinate conjunction, 
form a complex sentence out of each of the following sets of 
simple sentences, making the necessary changes. 



1. 



fThe days are the longest. 
iThe nights are the shortest. 



fThe mail is closed. 

Li must write a letter. 

rjames declined to go. 

iHe had not finished his lessons. 

fThe weather was unpleasant. 

LHe did not take his customary walk. 

f George Washington is called the Father of his Country. 

LHe was the first President (supply ^^ who "). 

fl took a journey to Syria. 

L Syria is in the western part of Asia. 

58. EXERCISE 

Analyze the following sentences by giving (i) the kind of 
sentence; (2) the complete subject; (3) the simple subject; 

(4) the modifiers of the simple subject with description of each ; 

(5) the complete predicate ; (6) the simple predicate ; (7) the 
modifiers of the simple predicate with description of each. 

Model : O/ie of the pupils went away befo7^e the school was 
dismissed, 

1 . A complex, declarative sentence, " One of the pupils went away " 

being the principal proposition. 

2. " One of the pupils " is the complete subject. 



66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. ^^ One" is the simple subject. 

4. " One " is limited by ^^ of the pupils," an adjective phrase. 

5. ^' Went away before the school was dismissed " is the complete 

predicate. 

6. " Went " is the simple predicate. 

7. " Went " is modified by ^^ away," an adverb, and " before the school 

was dismissed," an adverbial clause. 
Note. It will be found helpful to find the subject and predicate of 
the sentence before attempting to analyze it. 

1. Brevity is the soul of wit. 

2. They stumble that run fast. 

3. He gives twice who gives quickly. 

4. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

5. The paths of glory lead but to the grave. 

6. The evil that men do lives after them. 

7. The wicked flee when no man pursueth. 

8. Blessings brighten as they take their flight. 

9. Where there is honey, there are bees. 

10. Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep. 

11. When clouds are seen, wise men put on their cloaks. 

12. That you have wronged me doth appear in this. 

13. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. 

14. He hath heard that men of few words are the best men. 

15. I cannot see what flowers are at my feet. 

16. A people whom I have not known shall serve me. 

17. We know that nations may be miserable amid victories. 

18. If you wish to enjoy the pleasure of resting, you must work. 

19. Trust that man in nothing who has not a conscience in 
everything. 

20. I slept, and dreamed that Hfe was Beauty ; 
I woke, and found that life is Duty. 

21. Tell me not, in mournful numbers. 

Life is but an empty dream ! — 
For the soul is dead that slumbers, 
And things are not what they seem. 



PHRASES, CLAUSES, AND SENTENCES 67 

22. The tender grace of a day that is dead 

Will never come back to me. 
"23. There is a roaring in the black-grown pines 
\Mien winter lifts his voice. 

24. The moon, that once was round and full, 

Is now a silver bow. 

25. Music, when soft voices die, 
Vibrates in the memory. 

26. A slender wire, the living light conveys, 
That startles midnight with its noonday blaze. 

27. Daily, with souls that cringe and plot. 
We Sinais climb and know it not. 

28. Sweet are the uses of adversity, 
Which like the toad, ugly and venomous. 
Wears yet a precious jewel in his head. 

29. Ring out old shapes of foul disease, 

Ring out the narrowing lust of gold ; 
Ring out the thousand wars of old, 
Ring in the thousand years of peace ! 

30. The smith, a mighty man is he, 

With large and sinewy hands : 
And the muscles of his brawny amis 
Are strong as iron bands. 

31. His hair is crisp, and black, and long 

His face is like the tan : 
His brow is wet with honest sweat. 

He earns whate'er he can. 
And looks the whole world in the face. 

For he owes not anv man. 



CHAPTER VI 
NOUNS 

59. Proper and Common Nouns. A noun, as you have seen 
(17), is a word or group of words used as the name of something. 

Observe carefully the nouns in the following sentences : 

Ralph went to New York last Thursday. 
A boy went to the city one day. 

Comparing '' Ralph " and '' boy " we see that '' Ralph " points 
out a particular person, and that '' boy " means any one of a 
class of persons. Because '' Ralph " is a boy's own name it 
is called 2. proper^ name^ or Proper Noun ; and because '' boy " 
is a name common to all persons of that class it is called 
a Common Noun. 

In the same way compare and classify '' New York " and 
" city " ; " Thursday " and " day." 

A proper noun is the name of an individual object. 

A common noun is a name common to a class of objects. 

Observe that proper nouns always begin with a capital 
letter. Compound nouns are combinations of simple nouns, 
such as ''inkstand," ''man-of-war," "man-servant." 

60. EXERCISES 

I. Use in sentences the following words and state of each 
whether it is a common or proper noun : 

Rose Monday Chicago day Italy Hamlet 
bird Mary paper oak flower peace 

1 From a Latin word meaning " one's own." 
68 



NOUNS 69 

II. Pick out all the common nouns and proper nouns in 
the following paragraph : 

The nation over which George Washington was called to preside 
in 1789 was a third-rate power, inferior in population and wealth 
to Holland, for example, and about on a level with Portugal or 
Denmark. The population, numbering less than four million, was 
thinly scattered through the thirteen states between the Atlantic 
and the Alleghenies, beyond which mountainous barrier a few hardy 
pioneers were making the beginnings of Tennessee, Kentucky, and 
Ohio. Roads were few and bad, none of the great rivers were 
bridged, mails were irregular. There were few manufactures. 
There were many traders and merchant seamen in the coast towns 
of the north, but the great majority of the people were farmers 
who lived on the produce of their own estates and seldom under- 
took long journeys. Hence the different parts of the country knew 
very little about each other, and entertained absurd prejudices. 

John Fiske's "How the United States Became a Nation" 

61. Abstract Nouns. When an object is placed before us, 
we observe that it has certain qualities, and we may think of 
these qualities apart from the object. For example, if we 
hold a snowball in our hand, we observe that it is white and 
cold and round. We may think of the snow ball as having 
the qualities of zvhitenesSy coldness, and iviindness. We may 
also think of the conditions and relations of objects by them- 
selves, as when we think of the distmtce that they are apart 
or of their prese7ice or absence. The qualities that persons 
possess are spoken of as if they were separate things, as 
patience, knowledge, and wisdom. All words which represent 
qualities, conditions, or relations considered in themselves 
are called Abstract Nouns. 

An abstract noun is the name of a quality or condition considered 
apart from the object to which it belongs. 



70 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

62. EXERCISES 

I. Find twelve abstract nouns in the following sentences : 

1. The children's curiosity was excited. 

2. The length, width and height of the box were equal. 

3. The teacher gave us some good advice about honor and 
obedience. 

4. The friendship which existed between the two men lasted 
many years. 

5. He had not a good memory, but his knowledge of the sub- 
ject was great. 

6. He was noted for his nobility of character and for his rever- 
ence for sacred things. 

II. Construct sentences containing the following abstract 
nouns : 



height 


beauty 


nearness 


color 


poverty 


fear 


faith 


ability 


strength 


freedom 


growth 


place 


hardness 


hope 


brightness 



63. Collective Nouns. Some nouns name a group or col- 
lection of similar objects such as ''army," ''swarm," and 
" family." Such nouns are called Collective Nouns. 

A collective noun is the name of a group of objects. 

A collective noun may refer to a group of objects viewed 
as a whole or to the individuals composing the group. It is 
important to know this, so as to understand the correct use 
of pronouns and verbs referring to collective nouns. It is 
correct, for example, to say of an army, ''It was defeated," 
meaning the army as a whole. We may also say of an army, 
''They were well fed," meaning the soldiers composing the 
army. 



gang 


jury 


bevy 


herd 


suite 


nation 


school 


pair 



NOUNS 71 

In speaking of a jury, we should say, ''// was dismissed," 
and ''They were permitted to go." Explain why these pro- 
nouns are correctly used. In the same way use '' fleet," 
''regiment," and ''family." 

64. EXERCISES 

I. Name the kind of objects to which each of the follow- 
ing collective nouns refers : 

swarm tribe committee 

train army regiment 

fleet crowd assembly 

team drove family 

II. Point out the collective nouns in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. The train was an hour late. 

2. Our team was beaten yesterday. 

3. They bought a pair of chickens. 

4. I saw a group of boys in the yard. 

5. The committee was in session an hour. 

6. The army was driven back by the enemy. 

7. He sold the herd for what it would bring. 

8. A herd of cattle were grazing in the pasture. 

9. Tecumseh was the chief of a tribe of Indians. 

10. A dozen of eggs was not enough for the family. 

11. The fleet consisting of five vessels was destroyed. 

12. The officer followed up the gang until they were all 
arrested. 

65. Gender of Nouns. If you see or hear the word 
" Charles," you know from the word itself that it denotes a 
male. If you see or hear the word "daughter," you know 
in the same way that it denotes a female. But if you see or 



72 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

hear the word '' friend," you cannot tell from the word itself 
whether it denotes a male or a female. You can sometimes 
tell this from its use in the sentence, as '' He is my friend," 
or '' My friend Mary is here." 

1. So far as nouns indicate sex by the words them- 
selves or by their use in sentences, they are said to have 
Gender. Those nouns which denote males are of the Mas- 
culine Gender and those which denote females are of the 
Feminine Gender. 

2. There is little use in saying anything of the gender of 
nouns unless they are seen to be either masculine or feminine. 
Some grammarians, however, designate as of the neuter gen- 
der all nouns which denote objects without sex, as ''tree," 
''book," "Chicago"; and as of the common gender all 
nouns whose gender is not known, as " cousin " and " child " 
in the sentences "My cousin has come," "The child is 
lost." 

3. Inanimate objects are said to be personified when they 
are spoken of as human beings. They are personified in the 
masculine gender when they possess qualities of strength or 
great size, and in the feminine gender when they possess 
qualities of grace or beauty. Thus we speak of the sun or 
of a mountain as "he," and of a ship or of the moon as 
"she." 

4. The termination " ess " to designate the feminine gender 
of some nouns seems to be disappearing. Such words as 
" doctor," " waiter," and " janitor " apply equally to men 
and to women. We may also say of a woman that she is the 
" author of a book " or " chairman of a meeting." But there 
are a few nouns like "hostess," "governess," and "mis- 
tress " to which the feminine termination still clings. 



NOUNS 



73 



66. 



EXERCISES 



I. From the sentences given in 58, (i) select all the 
nouns ; (2) give the gender of each noun that has gender ; 
(3) name all the nouns that have no gender ; (4) name all 
the nouns that may be either masculine or feminine ; ( 5 ) point 
out each noun whose gender is known only by the way it is 
used in the sentence. 

II. From the following nouns, pick out those that have 
gender and give the corresponding words of the opposite 
gender, for example, '' boy — giri/' " brother — sister." Point 
out the nouns that have no gender and those which imply 
either sex. (Use the dictionar}^ if necessan\) 



boy 


witch 


child 


widow 


preceptress 


aunt 


horse 


goose 


sultan 


baroness 


king 


hind 


duke 


heiress 


bachelor 


tree 


hero 


stone 


wizard 


murderer 


niece 


fish 


earl 


daughter 


widower 


sir 


nun 


queen 


hostess 


bridegroom 


lord 


dog 


czar 


husband 


man-ser^-ant 


maid 


monk 


parent 


duchess 


she-wolf 


duck 


mistress 


editor 


chicken 


executrix 


stao; 


brother 


o-ander 


waiter 


administrator 



67. Number of Nouns, i. Definition, In most cases you 
can tell from the/^r;;/ of a noun whether one object is meant 
or more than one, as "boy," ''boys"; "lady," ''ladies"; 
"goose," "geese." There are a few nouns, however, which 
do not change their form, as " sheep," " deer," " mackerel." 
The tcse of such nouns in sentences shows whether one object 
or more than one is meant, as in the sentences " I bought 
twenty sheep," "This sheep is mine." All these nouns are 
said to have Number. 



74 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Number is that form or use of a noun by which it denotes one or 
more than one. 

Nouns which denote one object are in the singular number. 

Nouns which denote more than one object are in the plural 
number. 

Give the number of the following nouns : 

books house tree fishes chairs 

men women shoes flocks flies 

Turn to the sentences given in 18, I, and tell the number 
of each noun. 

2. Regular phirals of nouns . Examine carefully the follow- 
ing list of nouns and tell how the plurals are formed : 

hat, hats tree, trees book, books 

horse, horses fish, fishes tax, taxes 

prize, prizes church, churches table, tables 

Most nouns form their plural by adding '' s'' or '' es'' to 
the singular. 

When the singular ends with a sound that will not unite 
with '' s," the plural is formed by adding '' es " to the singu- 
lar, as in the following : 

box, boxes dish, dishes 

loss, losses lunch, lunches 

latch, latches genius, geniuses 

3. Plurals of 7107 ms ending i7t '' y.'' 

turkey, turkeys lady, ladies story, stories 

monkey, monkeys pony, ponies baby, babies 

chimney, chimneys toy, toys army, armies 

From the above examples the following rules may be made : 
{a) When the singular ends i7i '' jj/ " preceded by a vowel, 
the plural is formed by adding '' i*." 



NOUNS 



75 



{b) When the singular ends in ''jr " preceded by a con- 
sonant, the plttral is formed by changing the ''y'' to''i'' 



and adding '' es,'' 

An exception is made in some proper names (see 67, 15). 

Write the plurals of the following nouns : 

cry body pansy hobby penny 

sky story bounty donkey glory 

fly army enemy reply body 

key valley turkey quarry laundry 

tray daisy victory journey money 

play copy jockey Henry attorney 

buoy survey berry fairy lily 

Make a list of all nouns you can think of that end in '' y " 
preceded by a vowel. 

4. Pbtrals of noitns ending in ''/" and ''fe^ To form 
the plural of some nouns ending in ''f " and ''fe," change 
the " f " or '' fe " to " v " and add ^^ es," as 

calf leaf half 

life sheaf knife 

wife loaf thief 



self shelf 

wolf beef 

wharf ^ elf 

Nouns ending in '' o " 
form the plural by adding '' s " or '' es." The plurals of such 
nouns in common use are as follows : 

Plurals formed by adding '' s " to the singular. 



5 . Plin^als of nonns ending in 



banjos 


dynamos 


mementos ^ 


quartos 


cameos 


embryos 


octavos 


solos 


cantos 


halos 


pianos 


folios 


chromos 


grottos ^ 


porticos ^ 


oratorios 


contraltos 


lassos 


provisos 


portfolios 



1 The plural of wharf is either wharfs or wharves. The latter form is 
generally used in the United States. 

2 The plural is also formed by adding '' es " to the singular. 



Plurals formec 


I by adding 


buffaloes 


echoes 


calicoes 


flamingoes 


cargoes 


heroes 


dominoes 


manifestoes 



76 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

es " to the singular. 

mosquitoes potatoes 

mottoes tomatoes 

mulattoes tornadoes 

negroes volcanoes 

6. Plurals in ''en.'' The old plural ending '' en " is re- 
tained only in three nouns, namely : 

oxen children brethren 

7. Plnrals with internal change. The plural of some 
nouns is formed by changing one or more letters in the 
middle of the word, as 

man, men tooth, teeth mouse, mice 

foot, feet goose, geese louse, lice 

8. Singtdar and plural forms tlie same. Some nouns have 
the same form in the plural as in the singular, as 

deer cod swine mackerel cannon corps 

sheep trout grouse heathen vermin means 

9. Phiral forms treated as singnla7^s. Some nouns in the 
singular number have plural forms, as 

alms mathematics optics politics 

amejids means pains riches 

gallows news physics tidings 

The italicized nouns in the above list may be used in 
both numbers. 

10. Noims ttsed only i7i the plural. Some nouns plural in 
form can be used only in the plural. The following list in- 
cludes the most common examples : 

annals drawers oats 

ashes dregs obsequies 

assets measles pincers 

bellows mumps scales 



scissors 


tweezers 


shears 


tongs 


spectacles 


trousers 


stocks 


victuals 



NOUNS 



n 



1 1 . Plttrals of foreign ivoi^ds. Some nouns taken from a 
foreign language follow the rule of that language, as 

alumna (fern.), alurnnae 



alumnus (mas.), alumni 
amanuensis, amanuenses 
analysis, analyses 
axis, axes 
basis, bases 
beau, beaux ^ 
cherub, cherubim ^ 
crisis, crises 
datum, data 
ellipsis, ellipses 
erratum, errata 
formula, formulae^ 



genus, genera 
gymnasium, gymnasia 
memorandum, memoranda 
nebula, nebulae 
oasis, oases 

parenthesis, parentheses 
phenomenon, phenomena 
radius, radii 
seraph, seraphim ^ 
synthesis, syntheses 
terminus, termini-^ 
thesis, theses 
vertebra, vertebrae 



12. Plurals of letters^ signs, etc. Letters, figures, signs, 
etc., are made plural by adding an apostrophe and '' s " ('s) 
to the singular, as a's, 4's, +'s. 

1 3 . Plurals with different meanings , Some nouns have two 
forms for the plural, depending upon their meaning, as follows : 



Singular 


Plural 




Plural 


brother 


brothers (same family) 




brethren (same association) 


cloth 1 


cloth (kinds) 




clothes (garments) 


die 


dies (for coining or stamping) 


dice (for play) 


fish 


fish (regarded collectively) 




fishes (regarded separately) 


genius 


geniuses (persons of rare 


ability) 


genii (spirits) 


index 


indexes (tables) 




indices (signs) 


pea 


peas (by number) 




pease (by quantity) 


penny 


pennies (coins) 




pence (amount of money) 


shot 


shot (balls) 




shots (discharges) 


sail 


sail (vessels) 




sails (pieces of canvas) 


staff 


staffs (as a military term) 




staves (canes or sticks) 



1 Also formed regularly. 



78 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

14. Phi7'als of compound nouns. Compound nouns form 
their plurals in three ways, namely : 

a. By changing the final syllable ; as 

spoonfuls major generals rose trees four-per-cents 

courtyards four-in-hands pianofortes forget-me-nots 

Most compounds form their plurals in this way. 

b. By changing the first part when that part is the leading 
word of the compound ; as 

hangers-on aids-de-camp sons-in-law 

attorneys-at-law courts-martial daughters-in-law 

c. By changing both parts ; as 

men-servants Knights Templars lords-justices 

There are only a few words of this class. 

1 5 . Plnrals of proper no?ins. The plurals of proper nouns 
are generally formed regularly, as 

Mary Marys Jones Joneses 

When a title precedes the proper name, either the title or 
the name may be pluralized, as 

the Miss Browns or the Misses Brown 

68. EXERCISES 

I. Give the number of each noun in the sentences found 
in 24. 

II. Write the plurals of the following nouns. (Use the 
dictionary if needed.) 



calf 


cargo 


motto 


bandit 


volcano 


ruby 


tooth 


larva 


turkey 


mosquito 


cuff 


chief 


cameo 


potato 


Frenchman 


veto 


wharf 


datum 


stratum 


cupful 







NOUNS 


79 


hoof 


alley 


monkey 


species 


court-martial 


lily 


piano 


tomato 


toothbrush 


attorney-at-law 


wife 


trout 


spoonful 


vertebra 


woman-servant 


lady 


flock 


soliloquy 


terminus 


man-of-war 


beau 


topaz 


alumnus 


attorney 


forget-me-not 


buoy 


daisy 


looker-on 


ellipsis 


memorandum 


axis 


penny 


stamen 


portfolio 


phenomenon 


sail 


brother 


oasis 


alumna 


comm ander-in-chief 



III. Tell the number of each noun in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. What is the news ? 

2. The alumni were invited. 

3. Mathematics is hard for me. 

4. These data are insufficient. 

5. I caught seven trout yesterday. 

6. He added six spoonfuls of water. 

7. The ellipses were carefully drawn. 

8. I have made a memorandum of it. 

9. The radii of a circle are always equal. 

10. These scissors were made in Sheffield. 

11. An analysis of five chapters was required. 

12. The lookers-on declared the contest a fair one. 

13. The cloths were all made from Australian wool. 

14. He bought four sheep and I bought one sheep. 

15. You should always dot your i's and cross your t's. 

16. The flock of geese was safely sheltered for the night. 

17. The fish were thrown into the hold of the vessel. 

18. Several strange species of animals exist in Australia. 

19. The tableaux represented scenes from '' Miles Standish." 

20. A good name is rather to be chosen than great riches. 



IV. Write sentences containing the following nouns used 
in such a way as to show whether they are singular or plural. 



8o 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Note 


carefully the 


use of ^^is," ' 


Svas," ^'has been," 


"are," "have 


been," '' 


were," " this. 


" and '' these. 


" 






Examples : " My family (plural) ; 


are all away." " 


This 


news (singular) 


surprises 


; me." 










army 


dozen 


series 


measles 




committee 


news 


tongs 


riches 


family 




mathematics 


pair 


wages 


public 


mackerel 




victuals 


hose 


class 


cannon 


gallows 




alumnse 


herd 


trout 


assets 


salmon 




memoranda 


alms 


sheep 


vases 


heathen 




parenthesis 


fish 


ashes 


means 


alumni 




phenomenon 


dregs 


strata 


swine 


vertebras 




appendixes 



Note. This very useful exercise may be extended so as to include 
practice with all the more familiar words given in 67. 

V. Change the following sentences so as to use each noun 

in the plural number. 

Example : This daisy is large. 

These daisies are large. 

1. A lady called here yesterday. 

2. The roof of the house is steep. 

3. It was very warm in the valley. 

4. The stratum was six inches thick. 

5. The ox is a strong beast of burden. 

6. The chief of the clan has absolute power. 

7. He carried a pailful of water from the spring. 

8. The man-of-war has come into the harbor. 
The German became a naturalized citizen of the United 



9. 

States, 
10. 

69. 



The hero was received with great demonstrations of joy. 
Case of Nouns. 



1. The boy obeyed. 

2. John is the boy. 

3. I saw the boy. 



4. He gave the boy a penny, 

5. It was for the boy. 

6. The boy's hat was lost 



NOUNS 8 I 

The relation of '' boy " in the above sentences is shown by 
its use as (i) subject of a sentence ; (2) subjective complement 
of a verb ; (3) direct object of a verb ; (4) indirect object 
of a verb ; (5) object of a preposition ; (6) an expression of 
ownership. 

We see that there is only one use of the noun, the one ex- 
pressing ownership, in which its relation is indicated by its 
form. The forms expressing all other relations are the same. 

These various relations are called case relations, and the 
form or use of the noun which indicates these relations is 
called Case. 

Case is that form or use of a noun by which its relation to other 
words in a sentence is indicated. 

Each relation of the noun as indicated in the above sen- 
tences does not represent a separate case. Only three cases 
are generally recognized in English. These cases will be 
explained in the sections which follow. 

70. Nouns in the Nominative Case. 

1. John became a soldier. 

2. The boy's name was John. 

The noun '' John " is used in these sentences (i) as subject 
of a sentence, and (2) as subjective complement (45). All 
nouns used in these relations are said to be in the Nominative 
Case. 

In what case is '' soldier " in i, and why 1 In what case is 
'' name " in 2, and why } 

In the sentence '' Does James remain your friend V in 
what case is ''James," and why.? In what case is ''friend," 
and why 1 

A noun used in a sentence in the relation of subject or of sub- 
jective complement is in the nominative case. 



82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Besides nouns in these two relations, there are nouns not 
directly connected with a sentence which are said to be in the 
nominative case. Such nouns are considered in App. III. 

71. . EXERCISES 

I. Point out the nouns in the nominative case and give 
the relation of each. 

Example : ^' John Adams " in i is subject nominative, used as sub- 
ject of "was President." 

" President " in i is predicate nominative, used as subjective com- 
plement with " was " to form the predicate. 

1. John Adams was the second President of the United States. 

2. Jefferson became President in i8oi and was President for 
eight years. 

3. The fourth President was James Madison, who was a man 
of learning and refinement. 

4. The old leather-bound book seemed a prize to the student. 

5. Near the stream was an old gray tower which had been a 
powder-house. 

6. Was that man the captain of the ship } 

7. How warm the weather is to-day ! 

8. Was the officer who arrested the thief your brother ? 

9. Good books are worthy friends and companions. 
10. Deep in the wave is a coral grove. 

II. In the sentences given in 47 point out all nouns in 
the nominative case. 

72. Nouns in the Objective Case. 

1. I met John. 

2. I gave John a knife. 

3. It belongs to John. 

The noun ''John " in each of the above sentences is said 
to be in the Objective Case. It is used here (i) as direct object 



NOUNS 83 

of the verb '' met," (2) as indirect object of the verb '' gave," 
and (3) as object of the preposition ''to." 

You see from the above sentences that the noun '' John " 
has the same form in all three relations of the objective case. 
You see also from the sentences in 70 that this word is the 
same in the different relations of the nominative case. The 
same is true of all nouns in both cases. The only way, there- 
fore, of determining the nominative and the objective case of 
nouns is by their use in a sentence. 

A noun used as the direct or indirect object of a verb or as the 
object of a preposition is in the objective case. 

Note. For other relations of nouns said to be in the objective case, 
see App. IV, V, and VI. 

73. EXERCISES 

I. Point out all the nouns in the objective case and tell 
in each instance why it is in the objective case. 

Example : '^ Part " in 2 is in the objective case, direct object of the 
verb " have learned." ^' Lesson " in 2 is in the objective case, object of 
the preposition '^ of." 

1. Have you learned your geography lesson ? 

2. I have learned a part of to-day's lesson. 

3. Will you give Henry your apple ? 

4. I gave my apple to Mary. 

5. I will lend Henry my knife. 

6. Mr. Jones left his son a fortune. 

7 . Copernicus taught the people that the planets revolve around 
the sun. 

8. Many people did not believe that theory. 

9. William and I went to the menagerie to see the animals. 
10. I do not like to practice upon the piano. 

II. Forgive us our debts as we forgive our debtors. 



84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

12. He lent his friend some money. 

13. Mr. Brown has known my brother from childhood. 

14. Cromwell, I charge thee, fling away ambition. 

15. Always be kind to the aged. 

II. In the sentences given in 47 point out all nouns in the 
objective case. 

74. Nouns in the Possessive Case. 

1. The boy's hat is on the table. 

2. Boys' hats are for sale here. 

'' Boy's " in I limiting '' hat " denotes ownership, and 
'' boys' " in 2 limiting '' hats " denotes kind. All such nouns 
are said to be in the Possessive Case. 

A limiting noun used to denote ownership or kind is in the pos- 
sessive case. 

The possessive case of nouns is sometimes called the 
Genitive Case, a name that is used in the grammar of other 
languages. 

The possessive is the only case of nouns that shows by the 
form of the word its relation in the sentence. For this reason 
it is important to become familiar with possessive forms in 
their various uses. 

(i) The possessive form of simple teims, 

1. I found RgirFs hat. 

2. I put it in the girls^ dressing room. 

3. The children's supper is ready. 

4. I saw James's mother in the garden. 

5. This is the ladies' waiting room. 

6. A lady's pocketbook was found there. 

7. A gentlemaii' s collar was bought in a gentlemen's furnishing 
store. 

In what number and case is each italicized word } 



NOUNS 



85 



Observe that all the singular nouns form the possessive by 
adding the apostrophe and '' s," as '' girl's " in i, '' James's " 
in 4, '' lady's " in 6, and '' gentleman's " in 7. 

Observe that of the three plural nouns two form the pos- 
sessive by adding the apostrophe and '' s " and one by adding 
the apostrophe alone. The plural '' ladies " in 5, because it 
ends in ''s," forms the possessive by adding the apostrophe 
alone. The other plurals, '' children " in 3 and '' gentlemen " 
in 7, which do not end in '' s," form the possessive by adding 
the apostrophe and '' s." 

The following rule may help you at first in writing and 
recognizing the possessive case of nouns : 

The possessive form of plural nouns ending in *^ s '' is made by 
adding an apostrophe. The possessive form of all other nouns is 
made by adding an apostrophe and ** s.** 

Apply this rule by writing the possessive of each of the 
following nouns. Use the possessives in sentences. 



man 


woman 


baby 


fox 


men 


women 


babies 


foxes 


dog 


child 


lady 


thief 


dogs 


children 


ladies 


thieves 


mouse 


ox 


teacher 


turkey 


mice 


oxen 


teachers 


turkeys 


bird 


Mr. Jones 


monkey 


negro 


birds 


Thomas 


monkeys 


negroes 



(2) The possessive forms of compoimd terms. 
Observe that the sign of the possessive is placed at the 
end of all compound terms, as 

1. Henry VIIFs death occurred in 1547. 

2. He went to his son-in-law's house. 

3. He obeyed the commander in chiefs orders. 



86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. The Prince of Wales is King Edward^ s son. 

5. It happened during William the Conqueror^ s reign. 

6. He was told of his sister Mary^s death. 

The terms ''Henry VIII" in i, ''son-in-law" in 2, and 
"commander in chief" in 3 may be considered as compound 
nouns. How is the possessive of these nouns formed 1 The 
possessive of each of the other groups of words in italics is 
formed in the same way. 

From these examples we can make the following rule :* 

The possessive of compound nouns and of all combinations of 
names used as one name is formed by adding the sign of possession 
to the last part. 

For the case of "King" in 4, "William" in 5, and 
" sister " in 6, see 77 and App. VII. 

(3) The possessive of nouns denotifig joijit aiui separate 
possession. 

Observe carefully the possessive sign in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. I have Allen and Greenough's Latin grammar. 

2. We have in our school Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries. 

3. Is that Mary's or Sarah's book } 

4. It is neither Mary's nor Sarah's book. 

There is but one book referred to in i and that is written 
jointly by two persons. The possessive sign is where placed } 

There are two books referred to in 2 and they are written 
by two persons separately. Where are the signs of possession 1 

From the above examples the following rule may be made : 

If two or more nouns in the possessive imply joint possession of 
the same thing and are connected by ^ * and, ' * the possessive sign is 
used only with the last noun ; but if such nouns imply separate 



NOUNS ^j 

possession or if nouns are connected by '* or " or ** nor,** each noun 
takes the possessive sign. 

Account for the sign of possession in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. It was neither John's nor James's fault. 

2. The book was bought at Robinson and Jones's bookstore. 

3. It is a short distance between Mr. Smith's and Mr. Brown's 
houses. 

75. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the possessives in the following sentences and 
give the number and gender of each. Give the rule for each 
possessive sign. 

1. The sun's rays scattered the mists. 

2. The bird's clear note was heard in the deep wood. 

3. Near the pond was the birds' gathering-place. 

4. Charles's explanation was found to be the correct one. 

5. The mothers' meeting was well attended. 

6. Under the overhanging rock was the famous bear's cave. 

7. John and Harry's pony was brought from the Shetland 
Islands. 

8. Neither the king's nor the queen's plea was of any avail. 

9. The book was one of Little, Brown & Co.'s publications. (In 
what case is '' Little " .^ Sec. 74, 3.) 

10. The drummer-boy was the army's pride. 

II. It was either the captain's or the pilot's fault. 

12. The order was left at the American Express Company's 
office. 

13. The teachers' reports were all presented yesterday. 

14. The ship's crew were saved in the lifeboats. 

15. The boy's quick action saved his comrades' lives. 

16. The river's rush and roar told of its terrible power, 

17. The silver was bought at Smith, Stone & Co.'s. 



88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

18. Mary's or Jane's book is missing. 

19. Davenport and Emerson's ''Principles of Grammar" was 
used. 

20. We consulted Webster's and Worcester's dictionaries. 

21. Do you prefer Steinway's or Chickering's pianos? 

22. Men's and boys' clothing is for sale here. 

23. It happened during William and Mary's reign. 

In 15 what is the number of ''boy's" and of ''com- 
rades' " ? Rewrite this sentence, changing the number of 
these words. 

II. Write in sentences the following nouns and tell the 
number of each noun : 



girls' 


widow's 


uncle's 


scholars' 


enemies' 


attorney's 


ancestor's 


fairy's 


children's 


gentlemen's 


cities' 


daisies' 


city's 


landlord's 


negroes' 


mice's 



horse 


boy 


cousin 


girl 


daisy 


lady 


donkey 


baby 



ox 


author 


calf 


forefather 


leaf 


foreman 


child 


editor 



III. Write in sentences the following nouns in both singu- 
lar and plural number, possessive case : 

lily 
body 
hero 
goose 

IV. Write sentences about the following, using the posses- 
sive form : 

1. The poems of Longfellow and Tennyson. 

2. The administrations of Grant and Lincoln. 

3. The administration of Harrison and Tyler. 

4. The factory of Wheeler & Wilson. 

5. The history written by Green or by Froude. 

6. The novels of Scott and Dickens. 

7. The dramas written by Beaumont and Eletcher. 

8. The life of Lincoln written by Hay and Nicolay. 



NOUNS 89 

V. Place instead of each blank a singular or plural noun 
of the possessive case. 

1. I am studying history. 

2. Dr. and Dr. office is on Main Street. (One 

office belonging to two physicians.) . 

3. I went to my wedding. 

4. I will meet you in the room. 

6. Which do you prefer, or dictionary ? 

6. How much do you charge for and arithmetic ? 

7. He paid the bill when it was presented. 

76. Appositives. 

1. Milton became blind. 

2. Milton, the poet, became blind. 

3. Kane, the Arctic explorer, died in 1858. 

4. Captain Kidd, the famous pirate, was a Scotchman. 

5. Cromwell, the first Protector of the Commonwealth, was a 
strong ruler. 

The first two sentences are clearly meant to express the 
same thought. The limiting noun '' poet," meaning the same 
person as Milton, is used merely to tell which Milton is 
meant. A noun used in this way is called an Appositive and 
is said to be m apposition with the word it limits. 

Point out the appositives in 3, 4, and 5, and the nouns with 
which they are in apposition. 

A noun limiting another noun and meaning the same person or 
thing is called an appositive and is said to be in apposition with 
the noun it limits. 

77. The Case of Appositives. Appositives are in the same 
case as the words they limit or explain. In the sentence 
'* My cousin George visited me,*"' the limiting noun '' George " 
is an appositive and is in apposition with ''cousin. ' As 



90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

''cousin" is in the nominative case, the case of the apposi- 
tive '' George " must be nominative also. 

The case of an appositive may be nominative, possessive, 
or objective, as shown in the following sentences : 

Mr. Brown, the secretary, sent the letter. 

It was in Mr. Brown's, the secretary's, handwriting. 

I saw Mr. Brown, the secretary, at the meeting. 

When, however, the nouns in apposition are in the posses- 
sive case, the sign of possession is generally given only to one 
of them, as in the sentence '' It happened during William 
the Conqueror's reign." ''William" here is supposed to be 
in the possessive case, as well as " Conqueror's," but the 
sign of possession is attached only to the second noun. 

An appositive must be in the same case as the word it repre- 
sents. 

Note carefully the punctuation of sentences having nouns 
in apposition. 

78. EXERCISE 

Point out the nouns in apposition and give the case of 
each. 

1. The letter " a " is a vowel. 

2. The poet Whittier wrote " Snow-Bound." 

3. His brother William's daughter is ill. 

4. Brussels, the little Paris, is the capital of Belgium. 

5. He visited North Cape, the land of the midnight sun. 

6. We saw Abbotsford, the home of Sir Walter Scott. 

7. Jack the Giant-killer's adventures were very wonderful. 

8. Miss Alcott, the author of " Little Women," lived in Con- 
cord, Massachusetts. 

9. Strode with a martial air Miles Standish, the Puritan 
captain. 



NOUNS 91 

10. The Mississippi, the Father of Waters, is one of the longest 
rivers in the world. 

11. Fairest of all the maids was Evangeline, Benedict's daughter. 

12. One of America's best friends in England was William Pitt, 
the great Earl of Chatham. 

13. The favorite song, '^ Home, Sweet Home," was written by 
a homeless man, John Howard Payne. 

14. Now the bright morning star, day's harbinger, 

Comes dancing from the east. 

79. EXERCISES 

I. Analyze the following sentences and parse each noun. 

Model : Mary borrowed her mother s penciL 

1. "Mary," proper noun, singular, feminine; nominative case, subject 

of ^^ borrowed." 

2. " Mother's," common noun, singular, feminine ; possessive case, 

limiting ^' pencil " by denoting possession. 

3. ^^ Pencil," common noun, singular, neuter; objective case, object of 

'' borrowed." 

For model for analysis, see 58. 

1. Order is Heaven's first law. 

2. So He giveth unto His beloved sleep. ('^ Beloved," often an 
adjective, is here what part of speech ?) 

3. The Child is father of the Man. 

4. O Nature, how fair is thy face ! 

5. Every good tree bringeth forth good fruit. 

6. Flowers are the poetry of earth. 

7. Self -conquest is the greatest victory. 

8. The groves were God's first temples. 

9. When the cat 's away the mice will play. 
10. One man's meat is another man's poison. 

II. How goodly are thy tabernacles, O Israel ! 

12. Gone are the birds that were our summer guests. 



92 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

13. Now Philomel, sweet songstress, charmed the night. 

14. 'Tis Chanticleer, the shepherd's clock, announcing day. 

15. The poet Longfellow wrote " Evangeline, a Tale of Acadie." 

16. We may cover a multitude of sins with the white robe of 
charity. 

17. Righteousness exalteth a nation; but sin is a reproach to 
any people. 

18. The doorstep to the temple of wisdom is a knowledge of 
our own ignorance. 

19. The riches of the Commonwealth 

Are free strong minds and hearts of health. 

20. When the rock was hid by the surges' swell 
The mariners heard the warning bell. 

21. Night's candles are burnt out, and jocund day 
Stands tiptoe on the misty mountain-tops. 

22. Thus to relieve the wretched was his pride. 
And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side. 

23. If thou wouldst view fair Melrose aright, 
Go visit it by the pale moonlight. 

24. Over the wooded northern ridge, 

Between the houses brown. 
To the dark tunnel of the bridge 
The street comes straggling down. 

25. Then the little Hiawatha 
Learned of every bird its language. 
Learned their names and all their secrets, 
How they built their nests in Summer, 
Where they hid themselves in Winter, 
Talked with them whene'er he met them. 
Called them '' Hiawatha's Chickens." 

26. When Freedom from her mountain height 

Unfurled her standard to the air. 
She tore the azure robe of night. 
And set the stars of glory there ; 



NOUNS 93 

She mingled with its gorgeous dyes 
The milky baldric of the skies, 
And striped its pure, celestial white 
With streakings of the morning light ; 
Then from his mansion in the sun 
She called her eagle-bearer down. 
And gave into his mighty hand 
The symbol of her chosen land. 
27. God bless our native land ! 
Firm may she ever stand 

Through storm and night 1 
When the wild tempests rave, 
Ruler of wind and wave, 
Do Thou our country save 
By Thy great might ! 

II. Parse the nouns in the sentences ""iven in 58. 



CHAPTER VII 
PRONOUNS 

80. Personal Pronouns. From what you have learned 
about pronouns (19 and 20) construct five sentences contain- 
ing pronouns and tell what each pronoun stands for. 

T)thnQ pronoun, antecedent. 

(i) Observe closely the use of the italicized words in the 
following sentences and tell what each word stands for. 

1. y^\][ yozi. come to see 7?ie this afternoon ? 

2. /shall be very glad to come. 

3. Please hrmg your brother with j'^//, if he is at home. 

4. John and his brother went to see their friend. 

6. They said as they arrived, ^^ We have brought otir books with 
tisr 

6. Henry said, ^Vwant to introduce j^// to ?ny mother.^' 

7. She welcomed them warmly and invited them to go with her 
into her garden. 

8. They went in and found // a very pleasant place. 

In I '' you " refers to the person spoken to. 

What word in i refers to the speaker 1 

What word in 2 refers to the speaker 1 

'' Your " in 3 refers to what 1 

'' His " in 4 refers to a person spoken of. What is his 
name 1 

In the same way tell of each pronoun whether it refers to 
the speaker, to the person spoken to, or to the person or 
thing spoken of. 

94 



PRONOUNS 



95 



(2) You can tell from the form of the above pronouns 
whether they refer to the person speaking, to the person 
spoken to, or to the person or thing spoken of. There are 
other pronouns of the same kind, such as ''yours," '' mine," 
"ours," "theirs," "him," "its," "thy," "thine," "thee," 
" thou." 

We do not commonly use the last four pronouns, but we 
can see that they refer to the person spoken to in such sen- 
tences as T\\OM art the man. 
Thy will be done. 

All pronouns that show by their form whether they refer to the 
person speaking, to the person spoken to, or to the person or thing 
spoken of are called personal pronouns. 

(3) The following sentences contain all the simple personal 
pronouns. Point them out and show why they are personal 
pronouns. 

1. I hope you will come to see me. 

2. He will bring it with him. 

3. She has your book in her desk. 

4. Your flower is larger than mine, but my flower is fresher 
than yours. 

5. We shall take our luncheon with us. 

6. John brought his book, but Mary left hers at home. 

7. Their house is larger than ours. 

8. It followed her to school one day. 

9. Its fleece was white as snow. 

10. You may bring your luncheon. 

11. They took theirs with them. 

12. I am the vine, ye are the branches. 

13. It shall be thine and thy sons' with thee. 

14. Thou canst not say I did it ; never shake 
Thy gory locks at me. 



96 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

81. Compound Personal Pronouns. When the syllable 
''self" or ''selves" is joined to the personal pronoun, the 
word so formed is called a compound personal pro7ioim. Its 
use is seen in the following sentences : 

1. He did the work himself. 

2. I myself was to blame. 

3. You will tire yourself out. 

4. You should look out for yourselves. 

5. They amused themselves with the book. 

In I and 2 the compound personal pronouns "himself" 
and " myself " are used simply for emphasis. 

In 3 the pronoun "yourself" is used in a reflexive way; 
that is, as object it refers back to the subject. 

The same is true of the other compound personal pronouns 
" yourselves " and " themselves " in 4 and 5. 

It is not considered good usage to employ the compound 
personal pronoun when it does not refer to some correspond- 
ing noun or pronoun in the sentence. Thus it is better not 
to use the word " myself " in place of " me " in the sentence 
"He came to see my brother and me." 

Describe the pronouns in the following sentences : 

1. You yourself can do it as well as he can. 

2. He will hurt himself if he is not careful. 

3. They ought to respect themselves in this matter. 

4. We saw the president himself as he rode by. 

82. EXERCISES 

I. Use the following personal pronouns in sentences and 
tell to what each one refers : 



they 


your 


me 


its 


she 


our 


them 


their 


it 


I 


you 


us 



PRONOUNS 97 

II. Use the following compound personal pronouns in 
sentences. Tell which are used for emphasis and which in 
a reflexive way. 

myself yourself itself himself 

ourselves yourselves herself themselves 

III. Select all the personal pronouns you can find in 79. 
83. Relative Pronouns. 

1. The lady who called left her card. 

2. I saw the house which they moved. 

3. These are the boys that helped me. 

What is the antecedent of the pronoun '' who "in i .^ What 
is the dependent clause in i .^ '' Who " not only relates to its 
antecedent, but also is used to connect the dependent clause 
with the antecedent. 

To what does "~ vrhich " in 2 relate ? How is it used as a 
connective ? 

To what does " that " in 3 relate and what does it connect 
in the sentence ? 

These pronouns are called Relative Pronouns. 

A relative pronoun is a pronoun which is used to connect a dei)end- 
ent clause with its antecedent. 

The dependent clause introduced by a relative pronoun is 
sometimes called a relative clause. 

Point out in each of the following sentences a relative pro- 
noun and its antecedent. Point out the relative clause in each 
sentence. 

1. That is the boy who showed us the way. 

2. Here is the book which you lent me yesterday. 

3. The horse which we liked so much is sold. 

4. This is the dog that belongs to my brother. 



98 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. I found the pencil that I lost last week. 

6. The boys that we saw were on their way to school. 

7. I have a dog which can do very clever tricks. 

8. He was the kindest gentleman that I ever saw. 

9. There was no one who could answer the question. 

10. All that heard the address enjoyed it very much. 

11. No boy can be truly polite who has not a kind heart. 

12. That is the very place which I visited several years ago. 

13. Has the train arrived which is due here at six o'clock ? 

'' Who " in I is the subject of the relative clause. '' Which " 
in 2 is the direct object of '' lent." In each one of the other 
sentences tell whether the relative pronoun is used as subject 
or object. Point out the antecedents and relative clauses. 

Show from the above sentences that ''who" relates to 
persons^ '' which " to animals and things^ and '' that " to per- 
sons^ animals^ and things. 

Point out the personal and relative pronouns in the sen- 
tences given in 47. 

84. Compound Relative Pronouns. In the sentence '' Who- 
ever did it ought to confess," the pronoun '' whoever " has a 
double construction, being used as the subject of ''did "and sub- 
ject of " ought." That is, " whoever " implies both antecedent 
and relative, being equivalent to " he who" or "any one who.' 
Thus expanded, the sentence would be "He who did it ought 
to confess." What is the subject of " ought '' t of " did " ? 

" Whosoever " (sometimes whoso) is used like " whoever " 
in sentences. 

In the same way "what," "whatever," "whatsoever,*^ 
" whichever," and " whichsoever " have a double construction 
in sentences, being equivalent to " that which " or " the thing 
which." These relatives may be used as subjects or objects, 
as " Whatever is, is right," " I will do whatever you desire." 



PRONOUNS 99 

A word which is used in a sentence as antecedent and relative is 
called a compound relative pronoun.^ 

Point out the compound relative pronouns in the following 
sentences and give the equivalent words of each : 

1. Whoever works hard will be likely to succeed. 

2. Whosoever exalteth himself shall be abased. 

3. You may do whatever you wish to do. 

4. Whatsoever is right I will give you. 

5. What he says may be regarded as true. 

6. You may take whichever you prefer. 

7. Whoever goes there to-day will be sorry. 

85. Interrogative Pronouns. 

Who is he 1 
Which is best ? 
What do you want ? 

Each of the italicized pronouns is used in asking a ques- 
tion, and is therefore called an Interrogative Pronoun. 

An interrogative pronoun is a pronoun used in asking questions. 

The above questions are used independently. They may 
be used dependently in objective clauses, as 

John asked, ^^ Who is he ? " 
John asked, '' Which is best ? " 
John asked, ^' What do you want ? " 

These questions are expressed in the exact words of the 
questioner, and therefore are called direct questions. 

1 This definition refers to the meaning, not the form, of the compound 
relative, and applies to the indefinite relatives '^ who," ^' which," and 
*'what" used in such sentences as '^''Who steals my purse steals trash," 
" You may take ivhi^h you please," and " I know what he said." 



lOO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

When the questions do not exactly express the words of the 
questioner they are called indirect questions^ as 

John asked who he was. 
John asked which was best. 
John asked what he wanted. 

In all these sentences '' who," '' which," and '' what " are 
called interrogative pronouns. 

The word for which an interrogative pronoun stands is 
found in the answer, '' who " referring to persons, '' which " 
and '' what " to anything other than persons. 

Point out an interrogative pronoun in each of the following 
sentences and tell whether it is used as subject or object : 

1. What shall we take t 

2. Which of you will go ? 

3. He asked who wanted to go. 

4. ^^ Who will go with me .^ " he said. 

5. He inquired of the man which was the nearer way. 

6. ^^ What do you want me to do with this book ? " he asked. 

86. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the interrogative and relative pronouns in the 
following sentences. What does each one stand for 1 

1. What are you looking for ? 

2. You may do what you please. 

3. This is the book that you need. 

4. Which of those books is yours ? 

5. Whoever goes must go promptly. 

6. He asked the boys who threw the stone. 

7. He inquired of the children who of them could perform the 
problem. 

II. Construct five sentences each having an adjective clause 
introduced by a relative pronoun. 



PRONOUNS lOI 

III. Construct five sentences each having an interrogative 
pronoun used in an indirect question. 

IV. Construct a complex sentence, using the compound 
relative pronoun '' what," and show that the pronoun repre- 
sents both antecedent and relative. In the same way use 
'' whoever " and '' whatever." 

V. Supply the word " who," " which," '' that," or '' what " 
in each blank and give a reason for your choice. 

1. Are those the books you lent me ? 

2. Those are the men asked me to go. 

3. are the ladies that called here to-day ? 

4. Did you drive home the cattle you bought ? 

5. He asked his mother she wanted him to do. 

87. Demonstrative Pronouns. The pronouns ''this" and 
''that" (plural "these" and "those") are called Demonstra- 
tive Pronouns because they point out the persons or things to 
which they refer. 

Notice carefully the use of these pronouns in the following 
sentences : 

1. What is //laf? 

2. T/ta^ is my hat. 

3. Every one knows f/iis. 

4. TAese are very warm days. 

5. I saw your friends and t/wse of your brother. 

Observe the difference between the use of these words as 
pronouns and the use of the same words as adjectives, as, for 
example, in the sentences 

T/iis is my hat. 
T/iis hat is mine. 

Make sentences using the words "this," "that," "these," 
and "those " as demonstrative pronouns and as adjectives. 



both 


few 


none 


several 


each 


many 


one 


some 


either 


neither 


other 


such 



I02 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

88. Indefinite Pronouns. There are several pronouns 
which do not belong to any of the classes of pronouns al- 
ready mentioned. They include those which refer to persons 
or things quite indefinitely, and are therefore called Indefinite 
Pronouns. The following list embraces those which are in 
most common use : 

all 
another 

any 

Some of the compounds like ''anybody," ''any one," and 
" anything " may also be classed among indefinite pronouns. 

The use of indefinite pronouns in sentences is illustrated 
by the following examples : 

I wish to see each of the boys. 
Neither of them was allowed to go. 
Several of the workmen were ill. 

Construct sentences using the words of the above list both 
as indefinite pronouns and as adjectives. 

89. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the demonstrative and indefinite pronouns in 
the following sentences and tell whether they are used as 
subjects, objects, or complements : 

1. This is not so large as that. 

2. All is not gold that glitters. 

3. One will be enough for me. 

4. Each of the girls was ready. 

5. These are better than those. 

6. None returned to tell the tale. 

7. Any of you that wish may go. 

8. Those are the books I wanted. 



PRONOUNS 



103 



9. Were there many on the boat ? 

10. Few shall part where many meet. 

11. Both of my eyes are troubling me. 

12. Either of the men can do the work. 

13. Some of his skill he taught to me. 

14. They rescued only a few of the miners. 

15. Any one will show you the way to the hall. 

16. Neither of them was able to assist the other. 

17. I will go one way and you may go the other. 

18. He caught one fish and then he caught another. 

19. There are none of the revolutionary soldiers living. 

20. All of the boys were late, but some had a good excuse. 

II. Change ten of the above sentences, using adjectives 
instead of pronouns. 

Example : This apple is not so large as that apple. 

III. Find several vv^ords used as demonstrative or indefinite 
pronouns in your reading book. 

90. Antecedents of Pronouns. As you have already learned, 
the antecedent of a pronoun is the word or words for which 
the pronoun stands. 

As the form of the pronoun depends frequently upon the 
form or use of its antecedent, it becomes important to recog- 
nize as readily as possible the antecedent of each pronoun. 

(i) The antecedent may be either a noun or a pronoun, as 

Those boys who were late may remain. 
Those who came early may be excused. 

(2) The antecedent, as the word indicates, is generally 
placed before the pronoun ; but it may be placed after the 
pronoun, as in the sentences 

I, John^ saw these things. 
You, William^ may go now. 



I04 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(3) Sometimes the antecedent is not expressed, as in the 
sentences -^ ^1^^^ Yiryq gone away. 

2. Who went with you ? 

The antecedent of ''they" in i is known to the speaker 
and perhaps to the hearer, but it is not expressed. 

The antecedent of ''who" in 2 is found only in the 
answer. 

(4) Sometimes the antecedent consists of two or more words 
connected by a conjunction, as in the following sentences : 

1. John and James took their sister with them. 

2. It was Mary or her sister Jane who was ill. 

The subject " John and James " is the antecedent of " their " 
in I, and the complement " Mary or her sister Jane " is the 
antecedent of " who " in 2. In what number is each of these 
antecedents ? 

Note carefully the antecedents of personal pronouns, espe- 
cially when they are separated from their pronouns by several 
words, as in the sentences 

1. One of the men who were sent lost his way. 

2. Let each of the girls take her own book. 

3. A man's manners frequently show his bringing up. 

The antecedent of "his" in i is "one"; of "her" in 
2 is " each " ; of " his" in 3 is "man's." 

91. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the relative and personal pronouns and their 
antecedents in the following sentences : 

1. One of the girls does not know her lesson. 

2. It was James or Paul who lost his pencil. 

3. This is one of the boys that ran away from their homes. 



PRONOUNS 105 

4. Will either of you boys lend me his pencil ? 

5. Neither of the men means what he says. 

6. The boy brought the book for which he was sent. 

7. Every^ one of the ladies took off her bonnet or hat when 
requested to do so. 

8. All the boys and girls had a pleasant time during their 
vacation. 

9. Robert had a knife and two pennies in his pocket, but in 
one of the games he lost them. 

10. Mary had a little lamb : its fleece was white as snow. It 
followed her to school one day, w^hich was against the rule. (The 
clause '' It followed her to school one day '' is the antecedent of 
'' which.") 

11. Point out the antecedents of all the pronouns which 
you can find in 56. 

92. Person of Pronouns. Make a list of personal pronouns 
(80), dividing them into three groups, namely : (i) those that 
represent the speaker ; (2) those that represent the person 
spoken to ; (3) those that represent the person or thing 
spoken of. Pronouns of group i are in the /irsf person ; 
those of group 2 are in the second person ; and those of 
group 3 are in the tJiird person. 

You can tell the person of some of the other pronouns by 
their form alone, but not of all. For example, the demon- 
strative and indefinite pronouns are all clearly in the third 
person, since they could represent a person or thing only as 
spoken of ; but the relative and interrogative pronouns may 
be in any one of the three persons, depending upon their use, 
as shown in the following sentences : 

1. It was I who spoke first. 

2. It was you who did the best. 

3. It was he who won the prize. 



Io6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. They who are wealthy can do these things. 

5. Which of us shall go ? I will go. 

'' Who " in I is in the first person, because its antecedent 
is in the first person. 

Why is '' who " in 2 in the second person ? 

In what person is '' who " in 3, and why ? 

In what person is '' who " in 4, and why } 

What does ''which" in 5 stand for.? In what person is 
'' which," and why ? 

Use the relative '' that " in a sentence in the first person. 

From these examples we see that 

Pronouns must agree with their antecedents in person. 

Pick out the pronouns in the following sentences and tell 
in what person each pronoun is : 

1. It was I who found the money. 2. Were you at his house 
last evening ? 3. Are these the books which you asked me to get ? 
4. Whose knife is that ? That is my knife. 5. Was it you who put 
out the light ? 6. They that are whole have no need of a physician. 
7. Ye crags and peaks, I 'm with you once again. 8. I, John, your 
brother, . . . was in the isle that is called Patmos. 9. I that speak 
unto thee am he. 

93. Gender of Pronouns, (i) The gender of pronouns, like 
that of nouns (65), is determined both by their form and by 
their use. Thus the gender of '' he," ''his," '' him," '' she," 
''her," and "it" is unmistakable; but the gender of other 
pronouns can be known only by their use in sentences, as, 
for example, 

1. The boy wko went home has returned. 

2. I answered the letter which came yesterday. 

3. These are the girls that did so well. 

4. The ladies who were present removed their hats. 



PRONOUNS 107 

''Who" in I is masculine, because it refers to ''boy." 
" Which " in 2 is in what gender, and why ? Give the gender 
of the itahcized pronouns in 3 and 4. If you change the 
antecedents of these pronouns, shall you be obliged to change 
the pronouns ? 

(2) When the gender of the antecedent is not known the pro- 
noun relating to it is masculine. For example, in the sentence 
" Neither of them could find his way home," the pronoun 
" neither " is represented by the masculine pronoun "his." 

But some words like " baby," " animal," " fish," etc., which 
include both males and females, are represented by the neuter 
pronoun " it " or " its," as 

The baby is crying for its food. 

They chained the dog because it was cross. 

(3) When the antecedent consists of nouns of different 
gender, corresponding pronouns should be used, as 

Every boy and every girl must sign his or her name. 

Such an awkward use of the pronouns may be avoided by 
changing the sentence to 

All the boys and girls must sign their names. 

Make a choice of pronouns in filling blanks and give 
reasons for your choice. 

1. The sun has run (his, its) daily course (65, 3). 

2. The ship moves majestically on (her, its) way. 

3. If any one wants this (he, she) may have it. 

4. When the child fell (he, it) cried lustily. 

5. If you are kind to an animal (he, it) will be kind to you. 

6. There were ten candidates (who, which) presented themselves. 

7. He caught a fish and then cooked (him, it) for supper. 

8. The cat mews when (he, she, it) wants something to eat, 

9. These are the girls (that, which) did so well. 



Io8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

94. Number of Pronouns. Review 67, and show by ex- 
amples that number in pronouns hke number in nouns is 
denoted by their form or use. 

Define number as apphed to nouns and pronouns ; singular 
number ; plural number. 

Make a list of twenty-six personal pronouns which are 
given in 91-93. Mark with the letter '' S " those that are 
used in the singular number only ; with the letter '' P " those 
that are used in the plural number only ; and with the letters 
'' S.P." those that are used in both numbers. 

''You," ''your," and "yours" are the only personal 
pronouns whose forms alone do not indicate their num- 
ber. How is the number of these pronouns shown ? Give 
examples. 

In the sentences given in 89 point out the indefinite pro- 
nouns that are in the singular number ; those that are in the 
plural number only ; and those that are in . both numbers. 
The following notes may assist you in the use of the demon- 
strative and indefinite pronouns. 

1. " This," " that," " each," and " one " are used only in 
the singular number. 

2. "Either" and "neither" refer to one of two persons 
or things, and are therefore singular. Thus in speaking of 
two persons we say. 

Neither of the two brothers earned his own living. 

3. " None " may be used in both numbers, as 

There is none (no one) that doeth good, no, not one. 
None (not any) of these things move me. 

4. "Few," "many," "these," "those," and "several" 
are used only in the plural number. 



PRONOUNS 109 

5. ''Some" when it refers to quantity is singular; but 
when it refers to number it is plural. Thus we should say, 
'' Some of the flour was wasted," and '' Some of the books 
were torn." The pronouns ''all" and ''any" are also used 
in this way, as 

All of the bovs 1 

r : , \ were tound. 

Not any of the boys j 

All of the money 1 

- - } was found. 

N ot any 01 the monev I 

6. ''Former," "latter," "first," "last," and "same" 
may refer to singular or plural substantives, and therefore 
may be in either number, as 

I was ^ , r 

}■ the first to arnve. 
\A e were j 

The first settlers of New England were Pilgrims and Puritans ; 
the former were Separatists, the latter were not. 

Mr. Smith and his brother were pupils of mine : the former was 

always good in his studies, but the latter was somewhat slow. 

It was 1 . . ^ . - 

^, (► the same that 1 saw before. 

They were j 

We cannot tell from the form of a relative or interroga- 
tive pronoun whether one object or m.ore than one is meant. 
As in gender and person, so in number, pronouns agree with 
their antecedents ; that is, the number of a pronoun is always 
the same as that of the word for which it stands. For this 
reason, if we do not know the number of a pronoun from its 
form, we have only to ascertain the number of its antecedent. 
What is the number of "who" in each of the following 
sentences ? 

That is the boy who was injured. 
Those are the boys who were injured. 



no ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

In the sentence ''He is one of the greatest actors that 
have ever been here," '' that " is plural to agree with its ante- 
cedent, '' actors." 

Note. In such sentences as this the mistake is frequently made of 
regarding '^ one " as the antecedent of ^^ that," and of saying, therefore, 
" He is one of the greatest actors that has ever been here." 

Great care should be taken in using pronouns the an- 
tecedents of which are compound in form. In the sentences 
'' It is President and governor who are to be voted for " and 
''It is President or governor who is to be voted for," what 
is the antecedent of " who " in each sentence ? What is the 
number of " who " in the first sentence ? in the second sen- 
tence ? 

In the sentences " The secretary and treasurer resigned 
his position" and "The secretary and treasurer resigned 
their positions," why is " his " used in the first sentence and 
" their " in the second ? 

In the sentence " Mary or Rose may bring her composi- 
tion here to be corrected," why is "her" and not "their" 
used ? 

Mistakes are frequently made in the use of pronouns whose 
antecedents are collective nouns or indefinite pronouns, es- 
pecially when the pronoun and its antecedent are widely 
separated. For example, in the sentence " Neither of my 
brothers brought his books," the indefinite pronoun " neither" 
is singular and therefore requires " his " and not " their " to 
be used. 

In the sentence " The Board of Aldermen adjourned its 
session at ten o'clock," the collective noun " Board " is used 
in the singular and therefore requires the pronoun " its " to 
be used. But in the sentence "The Board of Aldermen 



PRONOUNS 1 1 1 

were divided in their opinion," '' their " and not '' its " is used, 
because the antecedent, '' Board" is used in the plural. 

Examine carefully the use of the pronouns in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. Each of the girls gives what she can. 

2. One of the boys brought his camera with him. 

3. Let every one do what he pleases. 

4. Neither of the ladies did what she planned to do. 

5. That is one of the men who were injured. 

6. He sold each of the farms for what it was worth. 

7. Some of the money which he lost was found. 

8. It is John or William who has forgotten to ring the bell. 

9. Every one may have a ticket if he is willing to pay for it. 

10. Will either of you lend me his knife for a few minutes ? 

11. Every man and every boy present did as he was told. 

12. Everybody went into the woods and amused himself as best 
he could. 

95. RULE AND EXERCISES 

From what you have learned of pronouns the following 
rule of construction may be* made : 

A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and 
gender. 

I. Give the person, number, and gender of each pronoun 
in the following sentences and give the reason for its use : 

1. John said that his sisters could not come because they 
were ill. 

2. He is one of the best men that work here. 

3. That is one of the books which are not allowed in the 
librar}^ 

4. Some who were here last year brought their golf sticks 
with them. 



112 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. Each of the pupils is expected to do his best. 

6. The one who threw the stone will please raise his hand. 

7. The army which was commanded by Washington was suc- 
cessful. 

8. Each of his two sisters sold her share. 

9. The jury, having been in court all day, retired to their room 
and refreshed themselves as best they could. 

10. Are there any present who were absent yesterday ? 

11. If any of the coal was left I did not see it. 

12. '' Begin '^ and ''commence" have the same meaning, but 
the former is to be preferred. 

13. Our trees bore many peaches; the first that we picked 
were not so good as the last [were]. 

14. The last of his three children was an invalid. 

15. These are the same that you saw yesterday. 

16. This is the same that you saw yesterday. 

17. Some of the flour which I bought was not good. 

18. Some of the people who came were interested. 

19. None of the boys were willing to confess their fault. 

20. They fell down and there was none to help. 

21. When you have read the news, please tell it to me. 

22. The jury brought in its verdict at four o'clock. 

23. He is one of the best servants that have ever lived with us. 

24. Which of them do you think is the best ? 

25. Many of those who were in the v/ar have died. 

26. He sent it to the one who he supposed wanted it most. 

27. He sent her what he thought she needed. 

28. You may give it to whomever you please. 

29. Please keep to yourself what I told you. 

30. He himself is one of those who oppose the measure. 

II. Fill each blank with a suitable pronoun and give a 
reason for your choice. 

1. Every one thought (he, they) was right. 

2. Neither of the pupils discovered (his, their) mistake. 



PRONOUNS 113 

3. England expects every man to do (his, their) duty. 

4. Each of the men was obliged to provide (his, their) own 
uniform. 

5. Either Ella or Jane will lend you pencil. 

6. Every boy and every girl should do or best. 

7. Whoever desires to succeed in life must form good habits 
when is young. 

8. The child could not find mother. 

9. Let each of you do best. 

10. As officer and private always did duty. 

11. The club will hold meeting next Saturday evening. 

12. Can a leopard change spots ? 

13. Will either of you girls lend me knife ? 

14. He went to see one of the men are at the hotel. 

96. Case of Pronouns. You have seen (69-74) that the 
case relations of nouns are shov^n by their use as subject, 
object, or complement, and that one relation of the noun — 
that of possession — is indicated by its form as v^ell as by its 
use. The relation of pronouns is also indicated by their form 
and use as shown in the following sentences : 

1. He obeyed his father. 

2. I saw him yesterday. 

3. I think it was he. 

4. I shall go with him. 

5. She lost her pencil. 

6. It was on the table. 

7. I saw it on the table. 

» 8. This is the boy whom you met. 
9. This is the boy who went with you. 
10. I prefer this to that. 

Give the relation which each pronoun has in the sentence 
and tell whether the relation in each instance is known by its 
form or only by its use. 



114 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Case is that form or use of a noun or pronoun by which its rela- 
tion to other words in a sentence is known. 

From the above sentences you see that the forms of pro- 
nouns to denote relations are much more varied than nouns. 
It becomes very important therefore to have an accurate and 
ready knowledge of the appropriate forms of pronouns in 
their various relations. 

The case relations of the various kinds of pronouns to be 
considered in this chapter are (i) subject of a sentence, 
(2) subjective complement, (3) object of a verb, (4) object of 
a preposition, (5) possession or kind. 

Note. Other case relations are treated in App. XIV. 

97. Case of Personal Pronouns. Observe carefully in the 
following sentences the form and use of the personal pro- 
nouns 1 as showing the various relations : 

Subjective 
Complement 

Nominative 

I. 

you. 

he. 

they. 

she. 

Direct Object 

Objective 
, lesson, 
book, 
horse, 
present, 
money. 



Relation : Subject Object 

Case: Nominative Objective 

1. I saw you. 

2. You saw him. 

3. He saw them. 

4. They saw me. 

5. She saw it. 



Subject 

Nominative 

6. It was 

7. It was 

8. It was 

9. It was 
10. It was 



Relation . 
Case : 



Subject 
Nominative 



Indirect Object 



Objective 



11. He taught [to] 

12. They brought [for] 

13. I shall buy [for] 

14. She sent [to] 

15. You may get [for] 



me 

him 

you 

me 

them 



(the) 

(the) 

(a) 

(a) 

(the) 



^ For the declension of personal pronouns, see App. XV. 







PRONOUNS 


Relation : 


Subject 


Possession 


Case : 


Nominative 


Possessive 



115 

Indirect Object or 
Object of Preposition 

Objective 

16. They bought their (shoes) (of) him. 

17. He sold his (books) (to) us. 

18. They promised theirs^ (to) me. 

19. We buy our (clothes) (of) them. 

20. You took yours ^ (with) you. 

Change the pronouns in each of the above sentences and 
notice their form, as (i) '' You saw me," (2) '' He saw you," 
(5) '' He saw her." 

In which of the above sentences do you find that the 
pronoun has the same form in different relations 1 

The nominative ''thou" (possessive ''thy" or "thine," 
objective "thee") is no longer in common use, but is used 
in address to the Deity and in poetry, as in the following : 

Thou, Lord, seest me. 
I tell thee, thou 'rt defied. 
Woodman, forbear thy stroke. 

"You" is used in the singular as well as in the plural 
in both nominative and objective cases, as in the following 
sentences : you are my friend. 

You are all my friends. 

I am glad to welcome you. 

It is not difficult to use the correct form of the personal 
pronoun when it is used alone or when its relation in the 
sentence is obvious. For example, in such sentences as the 
following no mistake would be likely to be made in the choice 
of pronouns : ^ jje came to see us. 

2. We gave him a book. 

1 For the uses of '' mine," " ours," '' yours," ^^ hers," " theirs," see 
App. IX, 4. 



Il6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. They found him here. 

4. It was they who visited us. 

5. Did he know that it was you ? 

6. They went with us to the party. 

But when two or more pronouns are used together as sub- 
ject, object, or attribute, or as a limiting possessive, it be- 
comes more difficult to choose the correct word and to give 
a good reason for the choice. Study carefully the following : 

1. He came to see her and me. 

2. She and I gave him a book. 

3. He and she went with them and me. 

4. Did you know that it was she and I ? 

5. She sat between my brother and me. 

6. They found him and me here. 

What is the object of ''to see " in i .? 

What is the subject of '' gave " in 2 ? 

Point out the compound subject and compound object in 3. 

What is the case of each of the pronouns in 3 ? 

'' She " and '' I " in 4 have what relation in the sen- 
tence ? 

Why is '' me " and not '' I " used in 5 ? 

Why not use '' he and I " instead of ''him and me" in 6 ? 

Sitmmaiy. From the outlines and exercises given above 
we see that nearly all the case forms of personal pronouns 
change with their relations in the sentence ; and that 

1 . The nominative forms are used in the relations of {a) subject 
of the verb, and (6) subjective complement of the verb. 

2. The objective forms are used in the relations of (a) direct 
object of the verb, (&) indirect object of the verb, and (c) object of 
a preposition. 

3. The possessive forms are used in the relation of possession. 



PROXOUXS 1 1 7 

98. EXERCISES 

I. Give the relation and case of each of the personal pro- 
nouns in the following dialogue : 

Mary. Is that you, Helen ? 

Helen. Yes : it is I. Who did you think it was ? 

J/ I did n"t know in the dark whether it was you or Florence. 
You and she are about the same height. 

H. I think I am taller than she [is tall]. Did you go to the 
lecture last evening ? 

M. Yes : and it was very interesting. 

H. What was its subject .^ 

J/ It was about the Indians and their customs. 

H. Did you see my Cousin Rachel there ? 

J/ Yes ; she was with her brother. They sat directly in front of 
me. but I did not know it was they until they spoke. They had 
their Cousin Margaret with them. 

II. In each of the blanks insert the personal pronoun that 
you think is correct, and give the relation and case of each 
pronoun supplied. 

1. am coming to see you to-morrow. 

2. Please bring Lucv with . 

3. shall have a ver}' pleasant time with games. 

4. I am afraid that mother will not let come. 

5. Neither nor sister is well and have to be 

careful. 

6. Have lessons for to-morrow ? 

7. Xo : but I can leam at school. 

8. He bought it for my mother and . 

9. I saw Robert and Paul at the post office, but I did not 
know it was until spoke. 

10. It was either ]\Iar}- or Kate who lost way. 

11. The cat caught paw in the trap. 

12. Was it that found it ? 



Il8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

13. Why should boys be asked to go ? 

14. I am younger than [is young]. 

15. He is older than . 



16. Few boys can do as well as . 

17. I believe it was (they, them). 

18. Our teachers know better than (we, us). 

19. If you were (I, me), should you go ? 

20. Every one was present except (he, him). 

21. (He, him) that speaks first may have it. 

22. (He, him) that does wrong will I reprove. 

23. He asked my sister and (I, me, myself) if we would like 
to go. 

24. It may have been (she, her) whom I saw. 

25. If any one has found the book, (he, they) will please return 
it as soon as possible. 

26. Will either of you please lend me (your, his) pencil ? 

27. The committee has made (its, their) report. 

28. Every animal has a kind of language of (his, its) own. 

29. Each of the ladies present offered (her, their) assistance. 

30. Everybody does here what (he, they) (please, pleases). 

31. Neither John nor his brother made (himself, themselves) rich. 

32. Please buy brother and (I, me) a book to read. 

33. The success of the plan depends upon John and (you, 
yourself). 

34. My brother and (I, myself) have decided to go to the party. 

35. My father treated Mary better than (I, me). [Show the 
meaning with either pronoun.] 

36. Let each of us do (his, our, their) whole duty. 

37. Whoever committed the offense should acknowledge that 
(he, they) did wrong. 

III. Copy. the following outline upon paper and insert the 
correct personal pronoun in each blank. 

Note. After this outline has been made, the words may be com- 
pared with the declension given in App. XV. 



First ^ Singular 
Person L Plural 
Second ^ Singular 
Person L Plural 

^Singular, Masc. 
Third J Singular, Fern. 
Pei^son I Singular, Neut. 
L Plural 



PRONOUNS 119 

Nominative Possessive Objective 



IV. Construct sentences containing ten of the personal pro- 
nouns called for above and tell the relation and case of each. 
99. Case of Relative Pronouns. Review carefully 69-80. 

Note. For forms of relative pronouns used in different relations, 
see App. XV. 

Name all the relative pronouns which you know, and use 
them in sentences. 

Point out all the relative clauses and relative pronouns in 
the following sentences : 

1. The boy who was ill has recovered. 

2. The boys who 'were ill have recovered. 

3. The man whose arm was broken is here. 

4. The men whose arms were broken are here. 

5. The pupil whom I selected may now go. 

6. The pupils whom I selected may now go. 

7. The pupil to whom I gave permission may leave the room. 

8. She brought back the books which were borrowed. 

9. She brought back the book which was borrowed. 

10. She brought back the book which she borrowed. 

11. He was the man that came in ahead. 

12. He was the man that you introduced me to. 

13. He was the man that you wanted to meet. 

14. He knew who it was that I wanted to see. 



I20 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

What is the case of '' who " in i and 2 ? Why ? Notice 
that they have the same case and the same form. In what 
respect do they differ ? 

What is the relation and case of '' whose " in 3 and 4 ? 

'' Whom "in 5, 6, and 7 is the object of what ? In what 
case is it ? 

Like most of the personal pronouns and unlike nouns the 
relative pronoun ''who" has a different form in the three 
relations, as subject, object, and possessive modifier. Its case 
is therefore known by its form as well as by its relation. 

Can you show in the remaining sentences that '' which " 
and ''that" have the same form in the objective case as in 
the nominative ? 

Give the declension of "who," as indicated in the follow- 
ing outline : Singular Plural 

Nomiiiative who 

Possessive 

Objective 



" Which " and " that " are not declined ; that is, they have 
the same form in both numbers of the nominative and objec- 
tive cases and are wanting in the possessive. 

Sometimes "whose" is used as the possessive of "that" 
and "which," as "Please bring me the pencils whose points 
need sharpening." 

" Whose " is used in this sentence instead of "of which." 

In what case is " whose," and to what does it refer in the 
sentence " I lent him a book whose title I have forgotten " 1 
In what gender and number is " whose ".? Why } 

How may you change the sentence " It was pleasant walk- 
ing among the trees whose leaves were of many colors," so 
as to avoid the word "whose " .? 



PRONOUNS 121 

The compound relative pronouns (84) change their form 
to indicate case relations in the same way that simple rela- 
tives do, as shown in the following sentences : 

1. Whoever did the work should be paid. 

2. I will send it to whomever you designate. 

3. I will send it to whoever needs it most. 

4. Whosoever shall exalt himself shall be humbled. 

5. And to whomsoever much is given, of him shall much be 
required. 

6. Whosesoever sins ye forgive, they are forgiven unto them. 

7. I will do what you desire me to do. 

8. He generally succeeds in whatever he undertakes. 

9. Whatever happens, try to keep in good health. 
10. Sell whatsoever thou hast, and give to the poor. 

'' Whoever " in i is equivalent to what two words ? 

What is the subject of ''did" in i ? of ''should be paid" .? 

In 2 and 3 point out the objective clauses used as the 
object of " to." 

The objective form of the pronoun is used in 2 because 
it is the object of " designate." The nominative form of the 
same pronoun is used in 3 because it is the subject of 
" needs." 

What is the subject of " shall be humbled " in 4 .? 

In what case is " whomsoever " in 5 .? 

In what case is " whosesoever " in 6 .? What does it limit ? 

To what two words is " what "in 7 equivalent ? 

What can you say of the form of "whatever" in 8 
and 9 ? 

"Whosesoever" is the only possessive form of the com- 
pound relatives. 

Decline "whoever," "whosoever," and "whatever." 



122 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Summary. Name the simple relative pronouns. Which 
one changes its form in expressing the relations of subject, 
object, and possession ? 

Name the relations in which the nominative form of ''who '' 
is used ; the objective form. 

Name the compound relative pronouns. 

Give the nominative and objective forms of '' whoever " in 
both numbers and use each form in a sentence. 

Use in sentences the compound relative ''what" in the 
nominative and in the objective. 

The case of relative pronouns, like that of personal pronouns (97), 
depends upon their relation in the sentence, the relation of subject 
and subjective complement being in the nominative case, the rela- 
tion of object both of verb and of preposition being in the objective 
case, and the relation of possession being in the possessive case. 

100. Case of Interrogative Pronouns. Name the interroga- 
tive pronouns. Give examples of their use. 

Use the same words as adjectives in interrogative sentences. 

Is the antecedent of an interrogative pronoun generally 
expressed } How can you tell what it is } 

Point out the interrogative pronouns and give the case of 
each in the following sentences : 

1. Who went widi you ? 

2. Whom did you see ? 

3. Whose is it ? 

4. What is the matter ? 

5. What did he say? 

6. Which will you take ? 

7. Which is yours ? 

8. Who do you suppose went with me ? 

9. Whom do you think I saw ? 



PRONOUNS 123 

10. Which of the two brothers is the older ? 

11. Which of the three books do you like best .^ 

Which of the interrogatives do not change their form in 
the nominative and objective cases ? 

Which of them have fio possessive form ? 

What is the subject of ''do suppose " in 8 .^ 

Why is '' who " in the nominative case in 8 ? 

Why is '' whom " objective in 9 .^ 

In what case is '' which " in 10, and why ? 

In what case is '' which " in 11, and why ? 

From the above examples we see that the relations and 
forms of interrogative pronouns are the same as those of 
relative pronouns (see 99, Sitmmary). 

101. Case of Demonstrative and Indefinite Pronouns. 

1. This is a good apple. 

2. I do not like this very well. 

3. Those are the books you wanted. 

4. I will send you these or those. 

5. Either of them will suit me. 

6. I do not wish either of them. 

7. I shall not give it to either of you. 

8. One of the chickens was killed. 

9. He decided to kill one of the chickens. 

10. It is but right to look out for one^s property. 

In what relation is each of the demonstrative and indefinite 
pronouns in the above sentences 1 In what case t 

Show from the above examples and others that demonstra- 
tive and indefinite pronouns do not change their form in the 
two relations of subject and object. 

Indefinite pronouns, except ''one/' ''other," and "an- 
other," do not take the possessive form. Illustrate by ex- 
amples. These pronouns are how declined .? (See App. XV.) 



124 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Observe the construction (relations and case forms) of the 
pronouns in the following sentences : 

1. He gave some of his workmen two dollars a day. 

2. A few of the men received three dollars a day. 

3. He spent some of his money for books. 

4. Neither of the boys was present. 
6. He gave each of us a book. 

6. Each respected the other's rights. 

7. Each respected the others' rights. 

8. This victory was one of many which he had won. 

9. They did not speak to each other.^ 
10. They loved one another.^ 

Point out the direct and indirect objects of '' gave " in i. 
In what number is '' some " in i and in 3 ? 
How many boys are referred to in 4 ? 
Explain the difference between 6 and 7. 

102. EXERCISES 

I. Give the person, number, and gender of each pronoun, 
naming the antecedent if known. Give also the relation and 
case of each pronoun. 

1. It was my teacher who told me. 

2. I do not know whom they invited. 

3. Who was it that bought the book ? 

4. Who did he say bought the horse ? 

5. With whom did you go ? 

6. For whom did you say you worked ? 

7. Have you finished reading the story which you began 
yesterday ? 

8. Did you enjoy the story which was read to you ? 

1 Such expressions as '' each other " and '' one another " may be regarded 
as compound indefinite pronouns and be treated as single words. See 
App. I, 2. . 



PRONOUNS 125 

9. You are stronger than he. 

10. Nothing must come between you and me. 

11. It was he whom we saw in the garden. 

12. Was it you or he that first received the message ? 

13. Was it he of whom you spoke ? 

14. It is they who fought most bravely. 

15. We praised them who won the victory. 

16. Has he read the letters which the postman brought him ? 

17. That is the boy whose work received the highest prize. 

18. The path by which we climbed up the mountain was steep 
and narrow. 

19. They said it was he who saved the boy's life. 

20. The man whom we met was an old soldier. 

21. He and I were among those who went. 

22. He is one of the best .men that ever worked for us. 

23. Neither of the men respected the other's opinions. 

24. They helped each other in their work. 

25. The children are fond of one another. 

26. The work was done by him and me. 

II. Supply in each blank the form of pronoun which you 
think is correct (' I/' '' me " ; '' we," '' us " ; '' he," '' him " ; 
'' she," '' her ") and give a reason for your choice. 

Model : It zaas Thomas and I ivhont yon met. 

'^ I " is used in this sentence because the pronoun called for is the 
subjective complement, and therefore must have the nominative form. 

1. It was Thomas and whom you met. 

2. It was who helped me most. 

3. What were you and studying ? 

4. They invited you and to the party. 

5. Ask your mother if you may go with Mary and . 

6. The book was intended for you and . 

7. girls are going to play basket ball. 

8. He said that you and — might be excused from our lessons. 



126 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

9. It is and not you who ought to bear the blame. 

10. This change will make no difference to either or - 

11. I would not go if I were . 

12. He is stronger than or [is strong]. 

13. Was that who painted the picture ? 

14. No ; I think it was . 

15. Neither nor is able to go. 

16. They will all go except and . 



III. Insert in each blank the proper pronoun ('' he," '' her," 
'' his " ; '' it," '' its " ; '' they," '' their," '' them ") and give a 
reason for your choice. 

1. Let each of the girls take own place. 

2. Not one of the company had uniform on. 

3. Either Charles or Henry will lend you pencil. 

4. that are idle we reprove. 

5. that are whole have no need of a physician. 

6. You were more successful than . 

7. Neither of them wore dress suit. 

8. Everybody should have a house of own. 

9. Anybody wishing to sell books will please say so. 

10. If any one inquires about me, tell that I am well. 

11. Each of the men took • share.' 

12. Every one thought could do as pleased. 

13. The committee separated as soon as had finished 

business. 

14. The club had luncheon sent in to . 

15. The jury rendered verdict very promptly. 

16. We are stronger in athletics than . 

IV. Supply in each blank the pronoun ('' who," '' whom," 
'' whoever," '' whomever ") and give a reason for your choice. 

1. It is John • you wish to see. 

2. do you suppose I went with ? 

3. He asked m.e w^ere going with me. 



PRONOUNS 127 

4. I found it was he they had helped. 

5. I shall sell the land to offers me the most. 

6. I will give the money to • you may name. 

7. do you think was the speaker ? 

8. We desire the companionship of those we love and 

respect. 

9. She is a pupil ■ I know is truthful. 

10. He gave it to the man he thought was the owner. 

11. do you believe he sold it to ? 

12. I did not know it was that gave the counterfeit bank 

note. 

13. did they elect as president? 

14. He went with those • he thought he could assist. 

15. He went with those he thought were companionable. 

V. Supply the proper pronoun and give a reason for your 
choice. 

1. Everybody must look out for (himself, themselves). 

2. I would go to college if I were (she, her). 

3. (Whoever, whomever) goes must obey the rules. 

4. We supposed that it was Ralph and (I, me) (who, whom) 
it was intended for. 

5. One of the boys was studying (his, their) lesson. 

6. He offered a large sum of money to (whoever, whomever) 
would volunteer to go. 

7. Our government received (whoever, whomever) they sent. 

8. Such boys as (they, them) ought to be sent. 

9. (We, us) they could not trust. 

10. Will either of you girls lend me (her, their, your) pencil ? 

11. The School Board has already elected (its, their) chairman. 

12. No one should follow that vocation unless (he, they) has 
good health. 

13. Everybody seemed determined to enjoy (himself, themselves). 

14. The committee could not agree when (it, they) came to vote. 

15. Each pupil was asked to name (his, their) favorite author. 



128 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

103. EXERCISE 

Analyze the following sentences and parse the nouns and 
pronouns. 

Note. For model in the analysis of sentences, see 58. 

Model : They also serve who only stand a7zd zvait. 

1. '^ They," personal pronoun, third, plural, common; nominative case, 

subject of '^ serve." 

2. ^^Who," relative pronoun, third, plural, common, agreeing with its 

antecedent '^ They "; nominative case, subject of ^^stand and wait." 

1. Himself from God he could not free. 

2. They also serve who only stand and wait. 

3. That seems to you a little, me it suffices. 

4. Earth with her thousand voices praises God. 

6. The angel showed the names of those whom love of God 
had blest. 

6. If we be honest with ourselves, we shall be honest with 
each other. 

7. Who overcomes by force hath overcome but half his foe. 

8. I could a tale unfold, whose lightest word would harrow up 
thy soul. 

9. If thou wouldst find much favor and peace with God and 
man, be very low in thine own eyes. Forgive thyself little and 
others much. 

10. Truth crushed to earth shall rise again, — 

The eternal years of God are hers. 

11. I loved the brimming wave that swam 

Through quiet meadows round the mill. 

12. Who gives himself with his alms feeds three, — 
Himself, his hungering neighbor, and me. 

13. We see time's furrows on another's brow, . . . 

How few themselves in that just mirror see ! 

14. Ah, but a man's reach should exceed his grasp, 

Or what 's a ITeaven for .^ 



PRONOUNS 129 

15. For modes of faith, let graceless zealots fight; 
His can't be wrong, whose life is in the right. 

16. We sink or rise to the level of those with whom we 
associate. 

17. Heaven's gate is shut to him who comes alone ; 
Save thou a soul, and it shall save thy own. 

18. The world generally gives its admiration, not to the man 
who does what nobody else even attempts to do, but to the man 
who does best what multitudes do well. 

19. Who steals my purse steals trash; 'tis something, nothing; 
'T was mine, 't is his, and has been slave to thousands ; 
But he that filches from me my good name 

Robs me of that which not enriches him 
And makes me poor indeed. 

20. One by one the sands are flowing ; 

One by one the moments fall ; 
Some are coming, some are going, — 
Do not strive to grasp them all. 

21. Breathes there the man with soul so dead 
Who never to himself hath* said. 

This is my own, my native land ! 
Whose heart hath ne'er within him burned 
As home his footsteps he hath turned 

From wandering on a foreign strand ? 

22. I live for those who love me, 

Whose hearts are kind and true. 
For the heaven that smiles above me. 

And awaits my spirit, too ; 
For all human ties that bind me, 
For the task by God assigned me. 
For the bright hopes left behind me, 

And the good that I can do. 



CHAPTER VIII 

ADJECTIVES 

104. Kinds of Adjectives. Tell what you have learned 
about adjectives (21). 

Use ten adjectives in sentences and name the nouns to 
which they belong. 

1. That apple is green. 

2. Those red roses are fragrant. 

3. Some days were clear and cold. 

4. There are three acres in this lot. 

5. Many children like to read good books. 

(i) Point out six adjectives in the above sentences which 
are used to describe an object or to express some quality of 
it. These are called Descriptive Adjectives. 

A descriptive adjective is an adjective which describes what is 
mentioned. 

(2) Point out six adjectives in the above sentences which 
merely limit or extend the meaning of a noun without ex- 
pressing quality. These are called Limiting Adjectives. 

A limiting adjective is an adjective which limits or extends the 
meaning of a noun or pronoun without expressing quality. 

Point out the descriptive and limiting adjectives in the 
following sentences, and tell what words they limit : 

1. Those large sorrel horses are very valuable. 

2. Across the blue sky drifted the fleecy white clouds. 

130 



ADJECTIVES 131 

3. The heavy waves tossed the frail little boat against the rocks. 

4. The cheerful worker makes light the most irksome tasks. 

5. Many tall straight firs are useful for masts. 

6. Several books were carefully wrapped in thick, tough paper. 

7. To that remote village came faint rumors of war. 

8. On one side of the house is a wilderness of large stately 
elms and sturdy oaks. 

9. We brought from Alaska several Indian relics. 
10. There are in our back yard three English elms. 

(3) Descriptive adjectives derived from proper nouns are 
sometimes called Proper Adjectives, as '' Indian " and '' Eng- 
lish " in 9 and 10. 

(4) Descriptive adjectives are frequently used as nouns, for 

example. 

He was kind to \h!^ poor. 

The bimd and deaf should be cared for. 

Point out the adjectives used as nouns in the following 
sentences : 

1. Blessed are the merciful. 

2. How" are the mighty fallen. 

3. The strong should aid the weak. 

4. None but the brave deserve the fair. 

5. The righteous shall inherit the land. 

6. The Lord will destroy the house of the proud. 

7. Toll for the brave, the brave that are no more. 

In what case is the second '' brave " in 7 .^ 

(5) Limiting adjectives may be classified variously accord- 
ing to their use, as 

(a) Pro7iomiiial adjectives — adjectives sometimes used as 

pronouns, as 

That book is yours. 

Each boy must remain. 



132 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

(b) Numeral adjectives — words used to denote number, as 

There are three apples left. 
He sits in the seco?id seat. 

{c) Articles—'' ^;' "an," and "the." 

105. Pronominal Adjectives. In the sentence " That apple 
is ripe," the word " that " is a limiting adjective. Why.? 
Because it is sometimes used as a pronoun, it is called a 
pronominal adjective, 

A p7'onominal adjective is a limiting adjective^ which is 
sometimes used as a pronoun. 

Pick out the pronominal adjectives in the following sen- 
tences : 

1. This hat is too small. 

2. The farmer owns several horses. 

3. Each book was put in its place. 

4. All boys do not like to work. 

5. Which book do you like best? 

6. He has a few cents in his pocket. 

7. Either pencil is good enough. 

8. I will call at another time. 

9. Have you any good apples to sell ? 
10. I have several other calls to make. 

The most frequently used pronominal adjectives are 



all 


either 


many 


several 


those 


another 


few 


much 


such 


what 


any 


former 


neither 


that 


which 


each 


latter 


other 


this 


whose 



Use these adjectives in sentences and point out the noun 
to which each adjective belongs. Show by examples the dif- 
ference in use between pronominal adjectives and the same 
words used as pronouns. 



ADJECTIVES 133 

106. Numeral Adjectives. Numeral adjectives or numerals 
are of two kinds, called cardinals and ordinals. 

The cardinals are numerals used in counting, as '' one," 
''two," ''one hundred," etc. The ordinals are numerals 
which show the place or order of anything in a series, as 
"first," "second," "fiftieth," etc. The ordinals, except 
"first" and "second," also designate fractional parts, as 
' ' third, " " hundredth, " " thousandth ' ' (part) . 

107. Articles, i. "The" is called the definite article; 
"a" or "an" is called the indefinite article. Can you 
give a reason for the use of the terms " definite " and 
" indefinite " ? 

2. Use the articles " a " and " an " before nouns beginning 
with both vowel and consonant sounds,^ and make a rule 
governing their use. Explain why the use of " a " and " an " 
in such expressions as " a union " and " an honest man " is 
not an exception to the rule. 

3. Good usage seems to sanction the use of " an " before 
words beginning with a pronounced Ji and not accented on 
the first syllable as "an historical novel," " an heroic deed." 
This is an exception to the rule ; but the use of "a" in such 
cases is allowed, as " a hotel," "a Hebraic sign." 

4. When two or more objects are referred to separately, 
the article should be used before each object. But if they are 
referred to as one object, the article is used before the first 
name only. Thus the expression "the secretary and treas- 
urer" is allowable when only one person is meant. If two 

1 Vowel sounds are represented by the letters a^ e^ i, 0, zi, and sometimes 
w and y. All other letters are called consonants. The letters w and y are 
consonants when used at the beginning of a syllable or before a vowel in 
the same syllable, as *^ wind," " yesterday," " unwise." At the end of a word 
or syllable they are vowels, as " boy," '^ coward." 



134 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

persons hold the offices the article '' the " should precede each 
noun, as '' the secretary and the treasurer." 

5. Peculiar uses of the article should be noted in such 
sentences as the following : 

a, '' He has a little money." Compare this sentence with 
'' He has little money." 

b, ''It was sold for ten cents a pound," in which '' a " is 
a weakened form of '' one " used in the sense of '' each one." 

c, '' He is gone a fishing," in which '' a " is a remnant of 
an old preposition meaning on, 

d, '' The more he saw him the less he liked him," in 
which '' the " is not an adjective but an adverb. 

108. Compound Adjectives. Words of various parts of - 
speech are sometimes joined together to form an adjective, 
as ''lily-white," "well-bred," "far-reaching," "eagle-eyed," 
"tender-hearted," "three-cornered." These are called Com- 
pound Adjectives. 

Construct ten sentences, using compound adjectives. 

109. Singular and Plural Forms of Adjectives. A few 
adjectives change their form according as the nouns they 
limit are singular or plural. Thus we say, " this book " and 
" these books " ; " that boy " and " those boys." 

The cardinals (106) except "one" are always plural when 
used to limit nouns, and the nouns they limit should be plural ; 
thus we say, " two feet," and not " two foot " ; " five pounds," 
and not " five pound." But as part of a compound adjective 
the limited noun may be in the singular, as " two-foot rule " 
and " five-pound note." What kind of adjectives are "two- 
foot " and " five-pound " 1 

Note the hyphen in the compound adjectives and in nu- 
merals like " forty-eight " and " twenty-first." 



ADJECTIVES 135 

From each of the following parentheses select the word 
which should be used : 

1. I do not like (that, those) kind of stories. 

2. (This, these) sort of men will never succeed. 

3. How do these (kind, kinds) of shoes suit you ? 

4. It is difficult to sell (this, these) st}^le of hats. 

110. Comparison of Adjectives. Many adjectives change 
their form according to their use in comparison. 

Observe the use of the descriptive adjectives in the follow- 
ing sentences : 

William is a tall boy. 

John is the talle?' boy of the t^vo. 

James is the tallest boy of all. 

The three forms of the adjective limiting " boy " in these 
sentences show the Degrees of Comparison, " tall " being of the 
Positive Degree, '' taller " of the Comparative Degree, and " tall- 
est " of the Superlative Degree. 

1. The positive degree of the adjective is its simple form, 
and is used when the quality of an object is expressed without 
any relation to other objects. 

2. The comparative degree is used in the comparison of 
two objects. % 

3. The superlative degree is generally used in the com- 
parison of more than two objects. 

In what degi'ee is each descriptive adjective in the follow- 
ing sentences t 

1. She is a handsome woman. 

2. She is handsomer than her sister. 

3. She is the handsomest woman present. 

4. Mr. Brown is prosperous. 



136 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. Mr. Brown is ] \ prosperous than Mr. Smith. 



less 



) 



6. The I [ prosperous of the three men is Mr. Jones 

7. John is a good workman, but his brother James is a better 
workman than he. 

8. George is the best workman of them all. 

9. The weather was bad yesterday, but it is worse to-day. 
10. We are having the worst weather of the season. 

4. From the above examples v^e see that the comparative 
and superlative degrees of adjectives are formed in three 
ways, namely : 

a. By the addition of '' r " or '' er " and '' st " or '' est " 
to the positive, as 

Positive Comparative Superlative 

tall taller tallest 

handsome handsomer handsomest 

d. By prefixing the adverbs ''more" and ''most," or 
" less " and " least," to the positive, as 

Positive Comparative Superlative 

r more prosperous most prosperous 

prosperous i , ^ 

[ less prosperous least prosperous 

c. By the use of different words, as 

Positive Comparative Superlative 

bad worse worst 

good better best 

Use in sentences the positive, comparative, and superlative 
degrees of each of the following adjectives : 

bright young earnest beautiful 

rich large. honest virtuous 

noble happy cheerful gorgeous 



ADJECTIVES 



^Z7 



Pos. 
bad 
evil 
far 



5. The following adjectives are irregularly compared : 

Pos. Com PAR. Superl. 

little less least 

many more most 

much more most 



COAIPAR. 

worse 
worse 
farther 



fore former 



good 
ill 



late \ 

I 



better 
worse 
f later 
latter 



Superl. 

worst 

worst 

farthest 
f foremost 
{first 

best 

worst 

latest 

last 



near 

old 
well 



nearer 

f older 
[ elder 
better 



f nearest 



[ next 
oldest 
eldest 
best 



6. Some adjectives used in the comparative and superlative 
degree have no form for the positive, as 



Comparative 
inner 

outer 

upper 



I 

t 



Superlative 
I inmost 

innermost 
I outmost 
I outermost 
f upmost 
[ uppermost 



7. A few adjectives, like '' able," '' common," and ''fit," are 
compared by either of the first two methods of comparison 
named above, as 



Positive 
able 

common 



Comparative 

f abler 

\ more able 
commoner 
more common 



Superlative 
ablest 
most able 
commonest 
most common 



Euphony and good taste will determine largely which form 
of comparison should be used. 



138 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

8. Care should be taken in the use of comparatives in 
such sentences as '' He is taller than any other ptLpil in the 
room," not ''than any pupil." Why is not the latter expres- 
sion correct ? 

The following comparatives and superlatives should be 
carefully used : 

less (quantity), fewer (number) 

older and oldest (persons and things) 

elder and eldest (person only) 

latest (time), last (after all others in a series) 

9. All of the limiting adjectives, except a few pronominals 
like ''many" and "few," are incapable of comparison. The 
meaning of some qualifying adjectives makes comparison im- 
possible. Among these are " perfect," " square," " supreme," 
"perpendicular," "dead," "eternal," and "infallible." 

111. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the adjectives in the following sentences. Tell 
in what degree of comparison each descriptive adjective is 
and what it limits. 

1. This book is larger than that. 

2. This book is the largest of them all. 

3. Asia is larger than any other continent. 

4. Asia is the largest of all the continents, 

5. He is more successful than any other merchant in the city. 

6. Rhode Island is the smallest state in the Union. 

7. Nevada is less populous than any other state. 

8. The size of Massachusetts is less than that of New Hamp- 
shire, but the number of inhabitants is greater in Massachusetts 
than in New Hampshire. 

9. That is the oldest house in town. 

10. He is the eldest of six children. 



ADJECTIVES 139 

11. She is worse than she was. 

12. The earth is farther from the sun than Venus. 

II. Make sentences, using all degrees of the following 
adjectives : 

many bad well much thoughtful 

late old little evil busy 

III. Construct sentences, making comparisons as shown in 
3 and 4 of the preceding sentences. 

Example : Shakespeare was a greater poet than Pope. 

Shakespeare was the greatest poet of England. 

1. Shakespeare as a poet in comparison with others. 

2. The Mississippi River and other rivers. 

3. The city of London and other cities in the world. 

4. February and the other months of the year. 

6. The twenty-first day of June and the other days of the year. 

112. Predicate Adjectives. The use of adjectives as sub- 
jective complements should be thoroughly understood so that 
the difference in relation and form between adjectives and 
adverbs may be clearly distinguished. Review carefully 45. 
. I. The adjective as attribute or complement is used with 
what verbs to form the simple predicate ? (See 45, 3.) 

Point out the predicate adjectives in the following sentences 
and tell to what they belong : 

1. The battle was very severe. 

2. The result for some time was doubtful. 

3. Do you feel cold this morning ? 

4. The flowers look very beautiful. 

5. He became almost blind. 

6. I thought that he looked well (in good health). 

7. The apples that they gave us tasted sour. 



I40 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

8. They rang the bell and it sounded loud. 

9. The weather grew cold and he became ill. 

10. The lecture which he gave proved most instructive. 

11. He lay very quiet upon the ground. 

12. The boy appeared bright and ready for work. 

13. She stood there calm and quiet. 

14. We arrived from our journey safe and sound. 

15. He remained silent through the interview. 

16. The man's face grew sad as he heard his son's story. 

17. This orange seems ripe. 

18. At any rate it tastes good. 

2. In determining whether an adjective or adverb should 
be used after a verb, the question in mind should be v^^hether 
the attribute of an object or the manner of an action is desired 
to be expressed. For example, in the sentence '' The flower 
smells sweet," ''sweetly" is not used, because the quality of 
the flower is to be expressed and not the manner of smelling. 
In the same way explain the use of the adjective in each of 
the following sentences and tell in each instance what adverb 
might be wrongly used : 

1. We arrived safe*. 

2. She looks pretty. 

3. The bells sound harsh. 

4. The judge looked very stern. 

5. The cloth feels quite smooth." 

6. He lay quiet for a long time. 

7. While he talked his eyes grew very bright. 

8. They remained silent while they watched the sunset. 

9. The mountains looked very grand as we approached them. 
10. The*place looks different from what it did five years ago. 

Further suggestions and practice in the use of adjectives 
and adverbs are given in 142-143. 



ADJECTIVES 141 

113. EXERCISES 

I. In each blank use one of the indicated adjectives (this, 
that, these, those) and give a reason for your choice. 

1. It is easy to manage kind of men. 

2. class of words is very common. 

3. I am much interested in sort of insects. 

4. Questions of sort are quite difficult. 

5. sort of thing you should abhor. 

6. Will you please pass me scissors ? 

7. news is quite exciting. 

8. ashes you ought to save. 

9. assortment of garden implements is very fine. 

10. tongs that you see are made of iron. 

II. spectacles are yours. 

12. deer are larger than . 

13. radii are of equal length. 

14. For how much did you sell oats ? 

15. I will give you memoranda. 

11. Use one or the other word or group of words in pa- 
renthesis and give the reason for your choice. 

1. How (sweet, sweetly) that rose smells ! 

2. This piece of cloth feels very (smooth, smoothly). 

3. The governor's wife looked (beautiful, beautifully). 

4. Please boil my eggs (soft, softly). 

5. I arrived home (safe, safely). 

6. The boy you sent me appeared (honest, honestly). 

7. This boy was the (older, oldest) of the two. 

• 8. Of the two generals, Sherman and Devens, the (first, former) 
is the (more, most) celebrated. 

9. Of the three places. New Orleans, Chicago, and St. Louis, 
the (latter, last) is the (farther, farthest) west. 

10. Washington is more beautiful than (any other city, all cities) 
in the country. 



142 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

11. Of two evils choose the (less, least). 

12. Which of the three cities do you think the (larger, largest) ? 

13. This horse is the largest (of any horse, of any other, of all 
horses) in the country. 

14. I like this book the best (of all, of any other) that I have read. 

15. This book (of all books, of all others) is the one that I like best. 

III. Give the comparative and superlative of such of the 
following adjectives as can be compared : 

dry unfortunate happy able well 

several square brilliant long far 

near wooden infirm glad shy 

few unusual circular round much 

114. EXERCISE 

Analyze the following selections and parse the nouns, pro- 
nouns, and adjectives. 

Note. To parse an adjective, tell merely its kind, or class, and the 
noun or pronoun to which it belongs ; for example, ^' tall " is a qualify- 
ing adjective and limits ^^ oaks." 

For model in analysis, see 58. 

For models in parsing nouns and pronouns, see 79 and 103. 

1. Honest labor bears a lovely face. 

2. There shall never be one lost good. 

3. 'Tis impious in a good man to be sad. 

4. A little learning is a dangerous thing. 

5. The gentle rain refreshed the thirsty flowers. 

6. An honest man is the noblest work of God. 

7. How mighty, how majestic are thy works. 

8. Let us be silent, so we may hear the whisper of the gods. 

9. A well-bred man is quiet in dress, kind to the aged, helpfu] 
to the weak, and respectful to everybody. 

10. A man he was to all the country dear. 

And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 



ADJECTIVES 143 

11. Beneath her torn hat glowed the wealth 
Of simple beauty and rustic health. 

12. With a slow and noiseless footstep 

Comes that messenger divine. 

13. Ring in the valiant man and free, 

The larger heart, the kindlier hand. 

14. Beneath those rugged elms, that yew-tree's shade, . . . 

The rude forefathers of the hamlet sleep. 

15. The gorgeous East with richest hand 
Showers on her kings barbaric pearl and gold. 

16. Be good, sweet maid, and let vv^ho will be clever; 

Do noble deeds, not dream them, all day long. 

17. Thou hadst a voice whose sound was like the sea. 
Pure as the naked heavens, majestic, free. 

18. It never troubles the sun that some of his rays fall wide 
and vain into ungrateful space, and only a small part on the reflect- 
ing planet. 

19. Full many a gem of purest ray serene 

The dark, unfathom'd caves of ocean bear. 

20. Two voices are there ; one is of the sea. 
One of the mountains, — each a mighty voice. 

21. His hair is crisp, and black, and long. 

His face is like the tan. 

22. Somewhat apart from the village, and nearer the Basin of 

Minas, 
Benedict Bellefontaine, the wealthiest farmer of Grand-Pre, 
Dwelt on his goodly acres, 

23. The sun upon the lake is low, 

The wild birds hush their song, 
The hills have evening's deepest glow, 
Yet Leonard tarries long. 

24. When friendships are real, they are not glass threads and 
frostwork, but the solidest things we know. 

25. Broad-browed he was, hook-nosed with wdde grey eyes 
No longer eager for the coming prize. 



CHAPTER IX 

VERBS AND VERBALS 

115. Transitive and Intransitive Verbs. 

What do verbs (23) express ? 

Give examples in sentences. 

Give a sentence which has for its simple predicate a verb 
of one word ; of two words. Give a sentence whose simple 
predicate consists of a verb and an adjective ; of a verb and 
a noun. 

I. You have seen (42) that some verbs require an object 
to complete their meaning, as in the sentences 

I foimd a book. 
John struck William. 

Here the verbs ''found" and ''struck" express action, 
and require the objects " book " and " William," showing to 
what the action is directed. All such verbs are called Transi- 
tive ^ Verbs. 

A transitive verb is a verb expressing an action which is received 
by some person or thing. 

It should be understood that the word " action " as used 
in this definition means action of the mind as well as action 
of the body, and that the thing acted upon may be expressed 
by a word, phrase, or clause. 

1 The name " transitive" comes from a Latin word meaning to pass over. 
That is, the action of the verb is supposed to pass over from the doer of the 
action to the person or thing acted upon. 

144 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 45 

Show that the verb in each of the following sentences is 
transitive, and point out the word or words used as the object : 

1. Columbus discovered America. 

2. We have a fine school building. 

3. I have broken my knife. 

4. She owned a fine bicycle. 

5. He wanted to buy an automobile. 

6. I wish that my friend were here. 

Make sentences, using the following transitive verbs : 

gave have painted has found 

enjoyed will write shall buy 

2. The verb in the sentence ''I walk" expresses action, 
and the sense seems complete without any other word. The 
same may be said of the verbs in the sentences ''He runs " 
and ''He stands." In these verbs the action expressed does 
not pass over to any object, but begins and ends with the doer 
denoted by the subject. Such verbs are called Intransitive 
Verbs. All verbs that express simply being or state are also 
intransitive, as in the sentences " He is the man " and " The 
fire burns y 

An intransitive verb is a verb which expresses action not received 
by any person or thing, or which expresses being or state. 

In the following sentences point out the intransitive verbs 
and tell why they are intransitive : 

The farmer worked very hard. 
The Indians were at first friendly. 
The children awoke early in the morning. 
Do the children read and write well ? 



146 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. A verb transitive in one sentence may be intransitive in 
another, as 

The boy draws a picture (transitive). 
The boy draws very well (intransitive). 
He wrote a good story (transitive). 
He wrote for three hours (intransitive). 

Make sentences, using the following verbs transitively and 
intransitively : 



boils 


blow 


broke 


study 


burns 


sing 


fear 


tasted 


speak 


believes 


waved 


flies 



116. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the transitive and intransitive verbs in the 
following sentences : 

1. The lady sang well. 

2. She sang a well-known song. 

3. He walked to the village every morning. 

4. He always walked his horse in going uphill. 

5. John Adams was the second President. 

6. Grover Cleveland became President in 1885. 

7. The U.nited States acquired territory from Mexico in 1848. 

8. Columbus made four voyages of exploration. 

9. On his fourth voyage he explored the coast of Honduras. 

10. The Pilgrims settled in Plymouth in 1620. 

II. I will try to do the work satisfactorily. 
12. Did you find the knife which you lost ? 

11. Find five transitive and five intransitive verbs in your 
reading book and show why each verb is transitive or intran- 
sitive. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 47 

III. Construct ten sentences and point out in them the 
transitive and intransitive verbs. 

117. Tense, i. Definition. From the form of most verbs 
you can easily tell the time of an action or state, as in the 
following sentences : 

1. The farmer so7vs oats. 

2. He sowed oats last week. 

3. He will S07V oats to-morrow. 

4. The child sleeps soundly. 

5. He slept soundly. 

6. He will sleep soundly. 

In which of these verbs is the action or state present } In 
which of them is the action or state past t In which of them 
is the action or state future 1 

Tenses are forms of verbs which show the time of an action or 
state. 

2. Present, Past, mid Fnt2C7'e Tenses. In the sentence '' I 
hear a sound," ''hear" is in tht p7^ese7it tense because it 
denotes present time. 

In the sentence '' I heard the lecture," '' heard "is in the 
past tense because it denotes past time. 

In the sentence '' I shall hear the lecture," '' shall hear" 
is in \h^fnttire te7ise because it denotes future time. 

In what tense — present, past, or future — is each of the 
verbs in the following sentences : 

1. He told me the story. 

2. I shall see him to-morrow. 

3. The lady sings very well. 

4. He returned home yesterday. 

5. The pupils sat quietly in their seats. 



148 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

'6. He speaks quite distinctly. 

7 . Will you speak more distinctly ? 

8. The boys fell down. 

9. Did you go last week ? 

10. She will teach next term. 

11. It costs a dollar. 

12. Will you keep it for me ? 

13. I hope you will meet your friend. 

14. They found a clear, cool spring. 

15. He writes stories for the magazines. . 

16. They sit around the camp fire. 

17. They filled their pails with blueberries. 

Change the tense of each of the verbs in the above sen- 
tences and use the changed form in a sentence, as (2) ''I 
saw him yesterday." 

3. Perfect Tenses. If you wish to tell some one that you 
have just finished writing your composition, you say, '' I have 
written my composition." If you wish to give the idea that 
you had finished writing the composition at some time in the 
past, you say, '' I had W7dtten my composition before I left 
home." If you think that you will finish the composition at 
some time in the future, you say, '' I shall have written my 
composition by four o'clock this afternoon." 

These verbs ''have written," ''had written," and "shall 
have written" express the idea of an action completed or 
perfect in present, past, or future time, and are therefore said 
to be in Perfect Tenses. 

4. Present Perfect Tense, 

They studied their lessons. 
They have studied their lessons. 

Which of the above verbs shows that the act of studying 
has just been completed } 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 49 

You say, ''Henry ran a mile yesterday." How would you 
use the verb to express the fact that he has just completed 
the running to-day ? 

Construct sentences, using the verbs ''played" and " has 
played," and explain the difference of meaning between 
them. 

The verbs " have studied," " has run," and " has played " 
represent actions completed in the present, and are therefore 
said to be in th^ present pej^fect tense, 

A verb is in the present perfect tense when it denotes an action 
or state completed at the time of speaking. 

Write sentences, using the following verbs in the present, 
past, and present perfect tenses : 

walk speak tell make receive 

5. Past Perfect Tense, A newsboy might say, "I have 
sold twenty papers to-day," meaning that he had sold up to the 
time of speaking twenty papers. If he wanted to express 
the thought that he had sold a larger number at that time 
the day before, he might say, " At this time yesterday I had 
^^/<^ twenty-five papers." " Had sold " in this sentence is in 
\ki^ past perfect tense because it denotes an action completed 
at some point in past time. 

If you say, " I had posted the letter before the mail closed," 
what does the verb " had posted " mean } In what tense is it } 

A verb is in the p^st perfect tense when it denotes an action or 
state completed at some point in past time. 

Use the following verbs in the past perfect tense and ex- 
plain their meaning : 

run buy finish give take 



150 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

6. Futitre Perfect Te7ise. A farmer might say, '' I have 
planted half of the field to-day ; before four o'clock to-morrow 
afternoon I s/iall have planted \}cl^ whole field." He means 
that before some point in future time a certain piece of work 
will be completed. If you began to work at seven o'clock, 
you might say at nine o'clock, '' I have worked two hours ; at 
twelve o'clock I shall have worked ^y^ hours." '' Shall have 
planted " and '' shall have worked " in these sentences are in 
lYiQ ftittire perfect tense because they denote action that will 
be completed at some point in future time. 

A verb is in the future perfect tense when it denotes an action 
or state that will be completed at some time in the future. 

Use the following verbs in sentences and explain their 
meaning as to the completion of an action : 

shall have sold will have walked 

will have picked shall have gone 

118. EXERCISES 

I. In what tense is each of the verbs in the following 
Sentences : 

1. The pupils study diligently. 

2. We have studied our lessons. 

3. He will arrive at ten o'clock. 

4. He will have walked twenty miles before ten o'clock. 

5. We found that the thief had stolen all the silver. 

6. Shall you go to the lecture this evening ? 

7. Has he finished the work ? ^ 

8. I have been to the theater. 

9. I was there last week. 

10. How many times have you been to Europe ? 

II. I shall go next year, and then I shall have been there four 
times. 



VERBS AND VERBALS , I51 

12. Flow many letters had he written before the mail closed ? 

13. Whose book have you? 

14. I have my brother's book. 

15. How many credits have you had ? 

16. I have had five credits. 

II. Rewrite each of the above sentences so that the verb 
will be in a different tense from the tense here given, as (i) 
The pupils studied diligently. 

III. Give in sentences tw^o examples of each kind of tense 
that you have studied. 

119. Auxiliary Verbs. Point out the verb phrases (23) in 
the following sentences : 

I do love the country. 

They might go if they desired. 

He has written a long letter. 

Each of these verb phrases has two parts, a principal verb 
and another verb w^hich is used merely to help the principal 
verb express its full meaning. These helping words are '' do," 
''might," and ''has," and are called Auxiliary Verbs or 
Auxiliaries. The words in italics in the following sentences 
are auxiliary verbs. Point out the verb phrases. 

1. I a77i going away next week. 

2. He was walking slowly. 

3. How it does rain ! 

4. Do you go to-morrow ? 

5. DidYiQ arrive yesterday? 

6. I have seen him to-day. 

7. He can study if he tries. 

8. I shall work all day. 

9. You j*/^<9^/^ not be absent. 

10. He may not come in time. 

11. Must I remain after school? 



152 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

A few verbs used as auxiliaries in verb phrases are often 
used alone to form the predicate, and they are sometimes 
used as principal verbs in verb phrases. Observe and explain 
the use of the italicized words in the following sentences : 





1. 


He did his work well. 




2. 


He did not come until it was too late. 




3. 


I have the book. 




4. 


I have had it a long time. 




5. 


He will do the work. 




6. 


Do you think it will rain ? 




7. 


They may do as they will. 


120. 


Mode. 



1. The carriage was ready. 

2. If the carriage is ready, we will go. 

3. I wish that the carriage were ready now. 

4. I doubted if the carriage would he ready in time. 

5. If the carriage were ready now, we would go. 

6. Be ready with the carriage at ten o'clock. 

7. Please have the carriage ready. 

In the above sentences there are in general three ways 
or modes of assertion by the verb. There are {a) assertions 
of facts either regarded as real or assumed to be real by the 
speaker, as in i and 2 ; {b) assertions not of facts but of 
mere conceptions or suppositions in the mind of the speaker, 
as in 3, 4, and 5 ; and (c) assertions of command or entreaty, 
as in 6 and 7. 

The way or manner in which the verb asserts what is in 
the mind of the speaker is called Mode. 

Mode is the manner in which verbs assert action, state, or 
being. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 53 

121. Indicative Mode. 

1. The sun has shone all day. 

2. He built his house of brick. 

3. If he is present, he may come forward. 

4. Although he believes it, he will not say so. 

5. Have you ever been to Europe ? 

Four of the verbs in the first four sentences are assertions 
of actual facts. They are ''has shone" in i, ''built" in 
2, " may come " in 3, and " will say " in 4. The other two 
verbs in these sentences — "is" in 3 and "believes" in 
4 — are assertions that are supposed to be true. The verb 
" have been " in 5 is used in asking a question. All these 
verbs are in the Indicative Mode. 

A verb used to assert a fact either real or assumed, or to ask a 
question, is said to be in the indicative mode. 

The following sentences have verbs in the indicative mode. 
Point out those verbs which express an actual fact, those 
which express a supposition likely to be true, and those used 
in asking questions. 

1 . Have you been to the circus ? 

2. No ; but I have seen the procession go by. 

3. Even though it is pleasant, I cannot go. 

4. Who would think that a boy of his age could do so well .^ 
6. I asked him if it was not true. 

6. You may go if you have time. 

7. He knows English well, if he is a foreigner. 

8. If he comes, I shall meet him. 

9. He hoped that he could go too. 

10. You must wake and call me early. 

11. Shall you go into the country soon ? 



154 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

122. Subjunctive Mode. 

1 . O that I could go home ! 

2. I fear that he may be late. 

3. If I were you, I would not take it. 

(i) '' Could go " in i, '' may be " in 2, and '' were " in 3 
all express a supposition or something merely thought of. 
The first of these verbs expresses a wish or desire, the sec- 
ond uncertainty, and the third what is untrue. All such verbs 
are said to be in the Subjunctive Mode. 

The chief difference between the subjunctive mode and 
the indicative mode lies in the idea of reality. The indicative 
mode expresses the action or state as a fact, the subjunctive 
as something doubtful or untrue. 

A verb is in the subjunctive mode when it is used to express a 
conception or supposition as desirable, doubtful, or untrue. 

(2) Before considering further the uses of the subjunctive 
mode, it will be found helpful to compare its forms with the 
forms of the indicative. The conjugation of the verbs in full 
is given in App. XVII, where it will be seen that in some 
tenses the forms of verbs in the indicative and in the sub- 
junctive are the same. It will be necessary to compare those 
forms only in which differences appear. 





The Verb 


^^Be'' 






Singular 






1ST PERS. 


2D PERS. 


3D PERS. 


Preseftt Indicative : 


I am, 


Thou art, 


He Ms 


Prese7it Subjunctive . 


■ (If) I be, 


(If) thou be, 


(If) he be 


Past Indicative : 


I was, 


Thou wast, 


He was 



Past Subjunctive : (If) I were, (If) thou wert, (If) he were 

1 Instead of " he " as the subject of this sentence, " she " or ''it" may be 
used, or any noun in the singular. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 55 

Plural 

1st pers. 2d pers. 3d pers. 

- Fresejit Indicative : \A'e are, Vou are. They are 

Fresenf Subjunctive : (^If ) we be, (If) you be. (If j they be 

The Verb " Have "' 

PrestJit Indicative : Thou hast. He ^ has 

PreseJit Subjunctive : (If) thou have, (If; he ^ have 

The Verb "' Love "' 

Present Lidicative : Thou lovest, He loves 

Present Subjunctive : (If ) thou love, (If) he love 

Past Lidicative : Thou lovedst 

Past Subjunctive : (If) thou loved 

ObseiTc that the forms of verbs are simpler and less vari- 
able in the subjunctive than in the indicative. These differ- 
ences appear particularly in the verb ''be," as shown in the 
following examples : 

If I zuei'e you, I would not go. 
Would that he wefe here. 

The forms of the present tense of "have" are simply 
prefixed to other words to form the present perfect tense, as 
''have been," "have walked." etc. These forms vdll be 
sho\\Ti more fully later. 

(3) The chief difference in the modal fonns of other verbs 
is in the third person singular of the present tense, as seen in 
the following sentences : 

If any man eat of this bread, he shall live forever. 
If thy right hand offend thee, cut it off. 

^ See footnote on page 154. 



156 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

If I will that he tarry till I come, what is that to thee ? 
Some heavenly power guide us hence. 

What is the indicative form of each of the above verbs ? 
(4) The auxiliaries '' may/' '' might," '' would," '' should," 
and '' had " are sometimes used in the subjunctive mode, as 

May thy kingdom come. 

I hoped that he might join us. 

If he had been here, he might have helped us. 

It would be better to wait awhile. 

Show why the verbs in the above sentences are in the 
subjunctive mode. 

If the auxiliaries named above are used in statements of 
fact, they are in the indicative mode, as 

The horse would not go. 
You may be excused now. 
You should leave at once. 

123. The Imperative Mode. In the sentence '' Shut the 
door," there is expressed a command, and in the sentences 
'' Please pass me the book " and '' Go thou and do likewise," 
entreaties are expressed. The verbs in all such sentences are 
said to be in the Imperative Mode. 

A verb is in the imperative mode when it expresses a command 
or entreaty. 

A verb in the imperative mode is always addressed to some 
one, but the subject is not generally expressed. In the first 
two of the above sentences the subject '' thou " or '' you " is 
understood. In the third sentence the subject '' thou " is 
expressed. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 57 

124. EXERCISES 

I. Tell the mode and tense of each verb in the following 
sentences and give the reason for its use as indicative, sub- 
junctive, or imperative mode : 

1. If I were in his place, I would not be a candidate. 

2. I cannot help criticising him, if I am his brother. 

3. I wish I were rich that I might help these poor people. 

4. Please send me the goods that I ordered. 

5. If he had been present at the meeting, he would have spoken. 

6. If he is honest and faithful, he will succeed. 

7. Though he were perfect, he could not do this work better 
than he has [done it]. 

8. May you live long and prosper. 

9. Even if it were pleasant to-day, I would not go to the fair. 

10. If you were worth a million dollars . what would you do with it ? 

II. O that I had the wings of a dove ! 

12. If thine enemy hunger, feed him : if he thirst, give him to 
drink. 

13. If he remains two weeks longer, he will have been here a 
year. 

14. \Miere do you think you will spend your next vacation ? 

15. If wishes were horses, beggars might ride. 

16. Will you please open the door ? 

17. Keep quiet while I am busy writing. 

11. Give the mode and tense of each verb and explain the 
use of the subjunctive in the following sentences : 

1. Thy kingdom come. 

2. I tremble lest he be discovered. 

3. Though he slay me, yet will I trust in him. 

4. AVhether it be beast or man. it shall not live. 

5. If it were so. it was a grievous fault. 

6. I wish "twere in my power to favor you. 



158 ' ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

7. What good should follow this if this were done ? 

8. Ah ! what would the world be to us 

If the children were no more ? 

9. I am the best of them that speak this language 

Were I but where 't is spoken. 

10. Some heavenly power guide us 
Out of this fearful country. 

11. The Lord make His face to shine upon thee, and be 
gracious unto thee. 

12. The master of the house shall be brought unto the judges, 
to see whether he have put his hand unto his neighbor's goods. 

13. If I were the Conservative Party of England, I would not 
for a hundred thousand pounds an hour allow those Corn Laws 
to continue. 

III. Tell the difference in meaning between the italicized 
forms as used in the following sentences : 

Example : If he is able (fact), he ^uill give assistance (fact). 

If he we?'e able (supposition), he would give assistance 
(supposition). 

1. If he (is, were) able, he {will, woicld) give assistance. 

2. If he Qniderstands, understood) the situation, he {unll, would) 
withdrav/. 

3. Though he (is, were) my own brother, I {shall, should) tell the 
truth about him. 

4. If the book {is, weix^ here, I {unll, would) send it to you. 

5. If it {is, were) worth while, we {ca7i, could) have a special 
train. 

6. If he {falls, had fall eii) into the river, he {will he, would 
have) drowned. 

7. Even if it {be, is) proved against him, yet I will trust him. 

8. If he {^go, goes), I shall remain at home. 

IV. (i) Construct ten sentences, using indicative verbs in 
dependent clauses. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 159 

(2) Construct ten sentences, using subjunctive verbs in 

dependent clauses. 

Examples : (i) I shall go when the train arrives. 

(2) Even if he were here, I could not see him. 

V. Construct sentences, using the verb ''strike" in all 
the modes and tenses. 

125. Voice. Point out the predicate in each of the follow- 
ing sentences : 

1. William made the sled. 

2. The sled was made by William. 

The verbs of these sentences are transitive (115) because the 
action expressed ''passes over" from the doer of the action 
to the receiver. 1 These verbs are said to have Voice because 
their form indicates whether the subject names the doer or the 
receiver of an action. In i the subject of the transitive verb 
" made " names the doer of the action. In 2 the subject of the 
transitive verb " was made " names the receiver of the action. 

A transitive verb whose subject names the doer of an action is in 
the active voice. 

A transitive verb whose subject names the receiver of an action 
is in the passive voice. 

Tell whether the verbs in the following sentences are in 
the active or the passive voice, and why : 

1. John writes a letter. 

2. Mary wrote a letter. 

3. Please recite the poem. 

4. The poem was written by Tennyson. 

5. I shall read the book to-morrow. 

1 At this point pupils should see clearly that the action expressed by a 
transitive verb sometimes '' passes over" from the subject and sometimes 
to the subject. Use many examples to show this. 



i6o 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



6. The farmer harvested all his crops. 

7. The crops will be harvested very soon. 

8. The city was very nearly destroyed by fire. 

9. I hope that we shall catch many fishes. 

10. He might have done the work more thoroughly. 

In what respect does the verb in i differ from the verb in 2 ? 
Change 2 so as to make the present object the subject. 
In what mode and tense is '' recite " in 3 .? 
Change the verb in 5 so as to make the object the subject. 
What is the object of '' hope " in 9 .? 

Change the verb in the dependent clause of 9 so as to 
make the object the subject. 

Change the verb in 10 from the active to the passive voice. 



He 



the book. 



126. EXERCISES 

I. From what you have learned about the voice, mode, and 
tense of verbs, and by the aid of the conjugations given in 
App. XVII, fill out the following blanks : 

Indicative Mode, Active Voice 

' Prese7it sees 

Present Perfect 

Past 

Past Perfect 

Future 

^y^Fictiire Perfect 

Indicative Mode, Passive Voice 

^ Prese7it is seen 

Pi^eseJit Perfect 

Past 

Past Perfect 

Future 

^Future Perfect 



The book 



>-by him. 



VERBS AND VERBALS l6l 

II. Tell the voice, mode, and tense of each verb in the 
following sentences : 

1. James broke the window. 

2. The window was broken by James. 

3. The paper was torn by the baby. 

4. He will mend my shoes next week. 

5. To whom was the message sent ? 

6. He could paint pictures very well. 

7. The peddler has sold all his wares. 

8. When the goods are sold, he will pay his debts. 

9. We hope that the money will be found. 

10. We hear that they have eaten all the food. 

11. The room has just been swept and dusted., 

12. If the house were finished, I would sell it. 

13. Although he did the work poorly, he was paid well. 

14. I doubt if the work be finished before to-morrow. 

III. Write sentences, using the following verbs in both 
the active and passive voices of the indicative mode, and all 
the tenses : 



write 


begin 


read 


drive 


study 


plant 


Example : Write. 







Indicative Active 

Present Tense. The pupils write compositions. 
Present Perfect Tense, They have written to me, etc. 

Indicative Passive 

Present Tense. The letter is written. 

Present Perfect Tense. The letter has been written^ etc. 

127. The Progressive Form of Verbs. If we say, '' Boys 
play," we use what is called the simple form of the verb, or 



1 62 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

the form which simply expresses action. If we want to show 
that the action is going on, we say, '' The boys are playing!' 
The verb so used is said to be in \\\^ progressive fonn. 

Compare the verbs in the following sentences and give the 
voice, mode, and tense of each verb : 

Simple Form Progressive Form 

I wrote. I was writing. 

I have written. I have been writing. 

I shall write. I shall be writing. 

I had written. • I had been writing. 

I shall have written. I shall have been writing. 

I may write. I may be writing. 

The letter is written. The letter is being written. 

The letter was written. The letter was being written. 
If I wrote, he would come as If I were writing, my English 

soon as possible. would be better. 

Write until I return. Be writing until I return. 

128. The Emphatic Form of Verbs. 

1. \ do try very hard. 

2. He did do very well. 

3. Do you wa7it me to help you ? 

4. Did you see my brother yesterday ? 

"q. \ do not see why the answer is wrong. 

The auxiliaries '' do " and '' did " are used in i and 2 for 
emphasis ; in 3 and 4 in interrogative sentences ; and in 5 in 
a negative sentence. 

The italicized verbs ''do try," ''did do," etc., above, are 
said to be in the emphatic form. 

Give sentences in the present and past tenses, showing the 
three ways of using the emphatic form of verbs. 

129. Person and Number, i . Verbs cannot be said to have 
properties of person and number as nouns and pronouns have. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 63 

In some foreign languages the verb has a special form for 
each person and number of its subject. It was so with our 
language formerly ; but within a few centuries there has been 
a change of practice in this respect until now there are only 
a few instances in which the form of the verb changes as its 
subject changes in person and number. Yet these few in- 
stances are very important, as when we say, 

I am You are He is 

I write' Thou ivritest He writes 

The change in the form of the verb in these sentences is due, 
not to any change of idea expressed by the verb, but to a 
change in the person of the subject. 

2. In the same way we can see that verbs sometimes 
change in form when the subjects are changed in number, as 
in the sentences 

The man wiites, . The men write. 

He has gone. They have gone. 

He is here. . They are here. 

3. From these examples we may conclude that the person 
and number of a verb are the same as the person and num- 
ber of its subject, or that 

A verb agrees with its subject in person and number. 

4. In practice both in the analysis and in the construction 
of sentences, it will be necessary to give attention only to 
those constructions in which the form of the verb is affected 
by the person and number of its subject. These constructions 
are found in the use of verbs in the present and present per- 
fect tenses of declarative sentences, and in the use of some 
forms of the verb ''be." 



1 64 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. The plural form ''you " is now commonly used instead 
of '' thou " in addressing any one, and when it is the subject 
a plural verb is used in the predicate, as in the sentences 

You are late, Mary. 

Have you lost your pencil ? 

6. The following are some of the forms of verbs which 
you need to know in studying the agreement of the verb with 
its subject : ^ 

The Verb ^^ Be '' 



Present Tens 

SINGULAR 


;e 

PLURAL 


1. 
2. 
3. 


I am 

You are (thou art) 

He is 


We are 
You are 
They are 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Past Tense 
I was 

You were (thou wast or wert) 
He was 


We were 
You were 
They were 




Present Perfect 


Tense 


1. 
2. 
3. 


I have been 

You have been (thou hast been) 

He has been 


We have been 
You have been 
They have been 



The Verb '' W^rite '' 
Present Tense 
1. I write (am writing) We write (are writing) 

fYou write (are writing) "1 
^'< or 1^ You write (are writing) 

L Thou writest (art writing) ) 
3. He writes (is writing) They write (are writing) 

1 For the conjugation of verbs, see App. XVII. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 65 

Present Perfect Tense 
singular plural 

1. I have written We have written 

I'Vou have written "} 
^■< or y Vou have written 

iThou hast written J 
3. He has written " They have written 

7. The simplest forms of sentences in which there is an 
agreement of the verb with its subject are shown as follow^s : 

1. I was there yesterday. 

2. He luas present this morning. 

3. You ai'e ver}^ obliging. 

4. My brother John goes to school. 

5. I a7n gomg to school to-morrow\ 

6. My sisters 7ide^ but I walk. 

7. The 7?iilkma7i bri?tgs the milk eveiy morning. 

8. I have brought my luncheon to-day. 

9. They have also brought their luncheons. 
10. He has not hvught his luncheon. 

Give the person and number of each verb and show^ w^hy 
any other form would be wrong. 

Example : '^ Was "' in i is in the first person, singular number, to 
agree ^^dth its subject '' I.-' '^ Were '' would be wrong because it is plural, 
and the singular verb is required here to agree with the subject. 

8. The above constructions are not at all difficult, for in 
ever)^ sentence the number and person of the subject and its 
verb are easily recognized. But w^hen the subject is separated 
from the predicate by several words, mistakes in the form of 
the verb are likely to occur, as in the sentence '' One of my 
sisters takes music lessons." In this sentence the singular 
form '' takes " is used because the subject '' one " is singular. 



1 66 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The mistake is likely to be made of using the plural form 
'' take " because of its nearness in the sentence to the plural 
noun '' sisters." 

In the following sentences tell the number and person of 
each verb and give the reason : 

1. Each of the boys has a bicycle. 

2. Neither of the pupils has returned. 

3. Has either of you seen my spelling book ? 

4. Not one of the pupils was able to answer the question. 

5. The condition of the officers and soldiers was not good. 

6. Nothing but misfortunes of various kinds has come to him. 

7. No one but his sisters seems to understand him. 

8. The general with all the soldiers was captured. 

9. Every one of the soldiers was ready to go. 

9. In following the rule of the agreement of the verb with 
its subject one must be guided more by the meaning than by 
the form of the subject. The following rules may be of as- 
sistance in determining the proper form of verbs as governed 
by the num.ber of the subject. 

a. When the subject is plural in form but singular in 
meaning, the verb is singular/ as 

The news is confirmed. 

Mathematics is my favorite study. 

'' Little Women " was written by Miss Alcott. 

^. When the subject is singular in form but plural in 
meaning, the verb is plural, as 

A portion of them remain. 
Half of the potatoes were eaten. 

1 For a list of this class of nouns, see 67, 9. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 67 

c. When the subject consists of two or more substantives 
used to refer to the same person or thing, or thought of as 
one thing, the verb is singular, as 

My friend and neighbor has passed away. 
Bread and milk is wholesome food. 

d. When the subject consists of two or more singular sub- 
stantives of the third person connected by ''or" or ''nor," 
the verb is singular, as 

John or William is to be there. 

e. When the subject consists of singular substantives 
which are connected by "and" and which refer to two or 
more persons or things, the verb is plural, as 

Grant and Lee were great generals. 
/. When the subject is a collective noun referring to the 
whole as one body, the verb is singular, as 

The regiment numbers one thousand men. 
The flock of sheep was sold yesterday. 

g. When the subject is a collective noun referring to in- 
dividual persons or things, the verb is plural, as 

The jury were not agreed in their verdict. 
The herd of cattle were grazing in the pasture. 

h. When the subject consists of two or more substantives 
of different numbers or persons connected by " or " or " nor " 
the verb agrees with the one that is nearest to it,^ as 

Either he or his brothers are going. 
Neither they nor he was to blame. 

1 Some grammarians make an exception of those sentences in which 
" I " of coordinate subjects stands nearest to the verb, preferring to say, 
" Either you or I are mistaken," rather than ^' am mistaken." But all agree 
that such a construction should be avoided by using a different form, as 
" Either you are mistaken or I am." 



1 68 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

130. EXERCISES 

I. Give the number and person of each verb in the follow- 
ing sentences, with a reason in each case. 

In connection with this exercise, construct many sentences 
suggested by the information given in 94 and 129. 

1. The committee were divided in their opinion. 

2. A great hue and cry was raised. 

3. '^ Gulliver's Travels " was written by Jonathan Swift. 

4. Mush and milk is all the food he takes. 

5. The people of the country are noted for their bravery. 

6. One or two have gone already. 

7. Neither the teacher nor his pupils were to blame. 

8. Half of them are away. 

9. Five dollars is too much to pay. 

10. Neither he nor his wife seems to care. 

II. Is Mr. or Mrs. Smith at home? 

12. His courage and perseverance is undoubted. 

13. Does each of you now understand the problem ? 

14. Some of the trees were cut down. 

15. He is one of those persons that are never contented. 

16. What is the use and purpose of these exercises ? 

17. I, who am much older than you, am able to recall many 
events of the Civil War. 

18. Not one of the children dares to disobey. 

19. The teacher together with all his pupils was late. 

20. Such phenomena as we saw last night are rarely seen. 

21. Three hundred dollars for such a horse seems a very small 
sum. 

22. A large part of the apples which you sold me were spoiled. 

23. Has either of you ever seen the President ? 

24. No one but the teachers was allowed to be present. 

25. For a laggard in love, and a dastard in war, 
Was to wed the fair Ellen of brave Lochinvar. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 69 

II. Make choice of verb given in each parenthesis and 
give the reason for your choice. 

1. One of the boys (study, studies) out of school. 

2. Thirty miles (is, are) a good distance to walk in one day. 

3. A committee (was, were) appointed and after a few min- 
utes made its report. 

4. The committee (was, were) invited and all of them came. 

5. Neither of the boys (seem, seems) satisfied. 

6. Some of the people (was, were) late. 

7. Nothing but loaves ever (grow, grows) on that tree. 

8. A large number of the workmen (was, were) dissatisfied 
with their wages. 

9. (Do, does) either of you know where oneof my gloves (is, are) ? 

10. Ten dollars (is, are) too much to pay for that coat. 

11. Neither John nor Henry (was, were) present yesterday. 

12. Every boy and girl in school (read, reads) very well. 

13. One or the other of us (visit, visits) them every day. 

14. Many a soldier and sailor (wish, wishes) to return. 

15. Neither she nor her cousins (go, goes) to-day. 

16. The fleet (was, were) scattered in various directions. 

17. There (is, are) peace and plenty where industry reigns. 

18. (Has, have) any of you seen my brother.? 

19. The ashes that you took from the furnace (is, are) in the 
barrel. 

20. He as well as his sisters (need, needs) instruction in needle 
work. 

21. The public (is, are) invited to attend the exercises. 

22. The pupils as w^ell as the teacher (desire, desires) the pres- 
ence of the parents. 

23. The captain with all on board (was, were) lost. 

24. The equipment of the schools (seem, seems) to be in good 
condition. 

25. Who of you (know, knows) where he is ? 

[Explain how it is that either ^^ know " or '' knows " may be used.] 



I JO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

26. Within the castle (stand, stands) two armed knights. 

27. A variety of beautiful objects always (charm, charms) the 
eye. 

28. The quality of the oranges which (has, have) come to-day 
(is, are) not good. 

29. The poems of neither Tennyson nor Browning (was, were) 
read by the pupils. 

30. The boy with all his faults, and he had many, (was, were) 
well liked. 

31. His generosity in addition to his other virtues (has, have) 
made him very popular. 

32. Every one of the fifty pupils (was, were) obliged to remain. 

33. A jury of twelve men (was, were) finally selected. 

34. Every boy and girl in school (know, knows) how to behave. 

35. It is you and not your brother that (deserve, deserves) the 
prize. 

36. During the game his trousers (was, were) badly torn. 

37. The thanks of his comrades (was, were) extended to him. 

131. Participles. A participle, as you have seen (48), is a 
word which is derived from a verb- and which partakes of the 
nature of a verb and of an adjective. It is, therefore, some- 
times called a Verbal Adjective. 

(i) The two simple forms of the participle are shown in 
the following sentences : 

1. Hearijig the bell, he went to the telephone. 

2. My umbrella, taken by mistake, was returned. 

'' Hearing " in i is called \}i\^ present participle, because as a 
participle it describes an action as going on at the time in- 
dicated by the verb ''went." ''Taken" in 2 is called the 
past participle^ because it describes an action as past and 
completed at the time indicated by the verb " was returned." 



VERBS AND A^ERBALS 171 

The use of these two participles is further seen in sentences 
with verbs of different tenses as follows : 

r I make him understand. 
1. ^^^^ZV//;^ very clearly,^ I ^lade him understand. 

L I shall make him understand. 
^ I fi7id him ^ 

2.^1 found him V playing ball. 
L I shall find him J 

{are the days of spring. 

3. Go7ie^ were the days of spring. 

I ivill be the days of spring. 

^ the letter is easily read. 

4. Written carefully, A the letter was easily read. 

I the letter will be easily read. 

The form called the past participle has really a passive 
meaning when it is derived from a transitive verb, as 
'' written " in 4.^ 

(2) ^\v^ phrasal *ox conipoimd participles 2S^ Y^dAo, up of 
the simple participles and forms of be or have. Their names 
and uses in sentences are as follows : 

Perfect Active : Having luritten the composition, he was permitted 
to go. 

Present Passive: The composition, being written hastily, could 
not be read. 

Perfect Passive : Having been written poorly, the composition 
was rejected. 

From what you have learned of the tense and voice of verbs 
(117, 125), can you give the reasons why these terms are used } 

1 Whitney, in his Essentials of English Grammar, p. 106, says that the 
past participle is sometimes called a passive participle because it ^^ de- 
notes completed action or condition as the result of suffering or enduring 
(passive means enduring) the action expressed by the verb." 



172 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Another form called the progressive form of the perfect 
active participle is used in the sentence 

Having been working for several hours, he went home. 

(3) The various forms of participles are shown in the 
following table : 



Present 

Past .... 
Perfect .... 
Pe7'fect progressive 



Active 



r placing 
l^ seeing 
r placed 
\ seen 

r having placed 
(^ having seen 
r having been placing 
1^ having been seeing 



Passive 



r being placed 

l^ being seen 

r placed 

l^ seen 

r having been placed 

(^ having been seen 



Observe that the present active participle ends in ''ing," 
while the past and passive participles have for endings '' d " 
and '' n." These participles have other endings, as ''t" in 
'' taught " and '' ne " in '' gone." 

The form of the past participle may sometimes be ascer- 
tained by asking what form is used with ''have" in giving the 
present perfect tense, as '' I have been,'' ''He has eaten,'' and 
" You have boitght." But the safer way is to learn the prin- 
cipal parts of all strong verbs in common use (see App. XVI). 

(4) The simple participles are used with forms of "be," 
" have," and other verbs called auxiliary verbs (119), to form 
the different voices, modes, and tenses, as in the following : 

I am writing. 

The letter is written. 

The letter has been written. 

He may be writing. 



VERBS AND VERBALS I 73 

(5) It is sometimes difficult to distinguish between the 
participle used as part of a verb phrase, and a participle or 
adjective used as a subjective complement. Thus in the sen- 
tence '' The man is fatigued," '' fatigued " is a word used as 
a subjective complement limiting '' man." It is used very 
much as the word ''weary" is used in the sentence ''The 
man is weary." But in the sentence "The man is fatigued 
by his efforts," " fatigued " is a participle used with " is " to 
form the passive verb " is fatigued." In this sentence action 
is expressed, whereas in the former sentence a condition 
merely is expressed. 

In the same way show the use of the participle in the 
following sentences : 

1. The man was decorated. 

2. The man was decorated by the governor. 

3. The house is painted. 

4. The house was painted by Mr. Smith. 

5. The house was painted last month. 

6. My shoes are blacked. 

7. My shoes have been blacked by the porter. 

8. My shoes have already been blacked. 

132. EXERCISES 

I. Point out and name the participles in the following 
sentences and tell to what they belong : 

1. Having found the ring, he gave it to its owner. 

2. Running rapidly, he fell down. 

3. The ring, having been found, was given to its owner. 

4. The child, being very sleepy, was put to bed. 

5. That house, painted white, was built five years ago. 

6. Having spent his money, he returned home, 

7. A dollar saved is a dollar earned. 



174 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

8. Being a good swimmer, he was able to rescue his friend. 

9. War having been declared, the fleet was sent. 

10. Having been working very hard for a year, he thought he 
would take a vacation. 

11. Give the present, past, and perfect participles of the 
following verbs in both voices : 

give spend take lose 

gain love hear find 

III. Construct two sentences containing present active 
participles ; two containing present passive participles ; two 
containing perfect active participles ; two containing perfect 
passive participles. 

IV. Tell whether each participle in the following sentences 
is used as a subjective complement or as part of a verb : 

1. The walk has tired him. 

2. He is very tired from his walk. 

3. This light is very trying to one's eyes. 

4. He is trying to do the work assigned to him. 

5. They were troubled over their lessons. 

6. She was disappointed in the exhibition. 

7. He was deceived by one who called himself a friend. 

8. My brother was driven to the station. 

9. He was so driven with work that he had no time for a 
vacation. 

10. They are much troubled by mosquitoes. 

133. Infinitives. An infinitive (48) partakes of the nature 
of what two parts of speech ? What other name has it ? 

(i) Observe carefully the use of the infinitives in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. To read good books improves the mind. 

2. Reading good books improves the mind. 



VERBS AND VERBALS I 75 

3. I like to play football. 

4. He likes to play football. 

5. By studying diligently I finish my work. 

6. By studying diligently he finishes his work. 

In what respect are ''to read" and ''reading" in i and 2 
like verbs ? Why cannot they be called verbs ? Why are 
these expressions like nouns ? 

Why do the predicate verbs in 3 and 4 differ in form ? 
The phrase "to play" has the same form in both sentences, 
that is, although the expression denotes action, it is not lim- 
ited in person and number as the predicate verb is in each 
sentence. The same fact may be shown in 5 and 6. 

Expressions used in these ways are not limited as predicate 
verbs are, and are therefore called Infinitives (not limited). 

Why are "to play" and "studying" in these sentences 
like nouns ? Why are they like verbs ? 

(2) There are, as shown above, two forms of infinitives, 
(a) the simple form with or without " to," ^ as " He wanted me 
to go'' and "He bids me do \t\'' and (b) the form ending in 
"ing," as ''Seeing is believing." The former is called the 
root infinitive because it is the simplest form of the verb ; 
the latter is called the participial infijiitive because it resem- 
bles in form the present active participle. 

Observe carefully the name and use of each kind of 
infinitive. 

r> s A u- ri. I should like to call upon you. 
Present Active H . , ,,. r j 

L2. I enjoyed calling upon you. 

jy .jr . A .' r3.I ought to have called y^sto-rddiy. 
jr6?ject Active -^ 1 r 7 • 

L 4. He was blamed for having called so late. 

1 Some verbs as " bid," " dare," " feel," " hear," " let," '' make," are fol- 
lowed by the infinitive without " to," as " I heard him go " and " I will let 
you /;;y." 



176 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

„ ^ ^ . r 6. He oue^ht to be called at five o'clock. 
Fresent Passive \ ^^ ,.,.,,, . ,, , 

L 6. He disliked being called so early. 

f 7. He ought to have been called at five o'clock. 

Perfect Passive \ 8. He was disturbed at having been called to 

L account. 

(3) The progressive forms of the infinitives are 

Present Active 9. I hope to be calling at this time to-morrow. 

r 10. I ought to have been calling instead of staying 
Perfect Active < here. 

111. He was tired from haviiig beeii calling so much. 

'' To call " (i) really refers to a future act, and '' calling " 
(2) to a past act. Why are they called present "i Why active ? 

What is the force of '' have " and '' having " in 3 and 4 .? 

Why are the infinitives in 5, 6, 7, and 8 called passive .? 

Explain the difference of form between ''to be called "(5) 
and '' to have been called " (7). 

Explain the difference of form between '' having called" (4) 
and '' having been called "(8). 

How does the infinitive in i differ from the infinitive in 9 .? 

How does the infinitive in 3 differ from the infinitive in 10 1 

(4) From the above study the following facts appear : 

a. A present infinitive expresses action which is incomplete 
at the time denoted by the principal verb, as 

I want to build a house. 
I wanted to build a house. 
I shall want to build a house. 

b, A perfect infinitive expresses action which is completed 
at the time denoted by the principal verb, as 

He is believed to have bee7i present. 

I was glad to have seen him. 

I shall be sorry not to have done it. 



VERBS AND VERBALS I 77 

c. The perfect infinitive is seldom used with verbs in the 
past and future tenses, the present infinitive expressing the 
meaning generally intended. Thus, '' I was glad to see him" 
and ''I shall be sorry not to do it" mean that the seeing 
and doing were at the time denoted by the principal verb and 
not before that time. 

(5) The common forms of the infinitive are shown in the 

following table : 

Active Passive 

„ ^ r to call . r to be called 

Present'!, , <j 

I calling L being called 

r, ^ -^ rto have called fto have been called 

Perfect <( . ^ . 

I. having called L having been called 



The progressive forms are 

Present Active, X.o\^^ Q's^iYig Perfect Active -i, . n- 

L having been calling 

(6) The most common relations of infinitives in sentences 
are as follows : 

a. Subject of a verb, as 

To succeed is a duty. 

Walking rapidly is good exercise. 

b. Subjective complement, as 

His desire is to go. 

His chief pleasure is doing for others. 

c. Object of a verb, as 

He intends to go to Europe. 
He intends going to Europe. 

d. Object of a preposition, as 

I am about to staii: for home. 
I am about starting for home. 



178 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

e. Part of a substantive phrase used as the object of a 

verb, as 

They advised him to write. 

She asked the coachman to wait. 

I saw her go up the street. 

In e the noun or pronoun preceding the infinitive is in the 
objective case as subject of the infinitive, the entire phrase 
being the object of the verb (see App. IV). 

134. EXERCISE 

Point out the infinitives in the following sentences and tell 
how they are used, whether as subject, object, or complement. 

1. I enjoy working in the garden. 

2. He intended to go last week. 

3. By being very careful, he escaped taking cold. 

4. Try to do your work well. 

5. Rowing is his favorite exercise. 

6. After listening to the exercises, John went home. 

7. There is no doubt about my arriving in time. 

8. To give money to a beggar is not always the best way of 
helping him. 

9. My first impulse was to run away. 
10. He likes to be called clever. 

135. Principal Parts of Verbs. In looking at all the forms 
of a verb in the various modes and tenses, we find that most 
of the changes appear in the past tense and in the past parti- 
ciple, which helps in forming the perfect tenses. Three forms, 
therefore, are called the principal parts of the verb namely, 
the simple infinitive, the past tense, and the past participle. 

The reason for using the simple infinitive as one of the prin- 
cipal parts of the verb is that it is the simplest form. On this 
account it is also called the root of the verb or the root i^ijinitive, ■ 



VERBS AND VERBALS I 79 

The root infinitive is the same as the form of the present 
tense with '' I." To find the principal parts of a verb, there- 
fore, we have only to use the verb with '' I " in a sentence, 
(i) in the present tensp, as '' I see^'' (2) in the past tense, as '' I 
saw,'' and (3) in the present perfect tense, as '' I have seen!' 
Give the principal parts of '' walk," '' buy," '' find," '' sell." 
136. Weak and Strong Verbs. Verbs are called zveak or 
^/r^?;/^ according to the way in which they form the past tense. 

1 . A zveak ve7'b is one which forms its past tense by the 
addition of '' ed," '' d," or '' t " to the present, as 

play-^^ move-^ dream-/ 

2. A strong verb is one which forms its past tense by a 
change of vowel and without an added syllable, as 

Present Past 

write wrote 

drink drank 

3. The past participle of a weak verb is of the same form 
as the past tense. 

Present Past Past Participle 

(I) walk (I) walked (I have) walked 

(We) visit (We) visited (We have) visited 

4. The past participle of a strong verb (a) sometimes ends 
in '' n," (^) sometimes has a different vowel from that of the past 
tense, and ic) sometimes has the same form as the past tense. 

5 . The following sentences show the different forms of the 
present, past, and past participle of strong verbs : 

Present Past Past Participle 

\ fo7^get his name, \fo7got his name. I hdiVQ fo7^gotten his name. 

I ri7ig the bell. I 7'a7ig the bell. I have 7img the bell. 

I wi7t the race. I wo7i the race. I have wo7i the race. 



i8o 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



6. Because of the fact that some verbs form the past tense 
and past participle in exactly the same way by the addition 
of ''d" and ''ed" to the present, these verbs are called regular 
and all other verbs irregular. The irregular verbs, therefore, 
include all the strong verbs and such of the weak verbs as do 
not form the past tense and past participle by the addition of 
''d" or ''ed" to the present. 

The following irregular verbs are used in common speech, 
but not always correctly.^ 

Learn thoroughly the principal parts of these verbs. 

Note. When there are two forms in any of the principal parts they 
are given in the order of preference ; for example, it is better to say, 
'^ The dog has bitten me," than to say, ^^ The dog has bit me," though 
both forms are correct. 



Present 


Past 


Past Participle 


begin 


began 


begun 
r bitten 


bite 


bit 


Ibit 


bring 


brought 


brought 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


do 


did 


done 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


fly 


flew 


flown 


forget 


forgot 


f forgotten 
L forgot 


go • 


went 


gone 


grow 


grew 


grown 


lay 


laid 


laid 


lie (to recline) 


lay 


lain 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


ring 


rang 


rung 


sit 


sat 


sat 



1 A more complete list of irregular verbs is given in App. XVI. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 



I8l 



Present 




Past 


Past Participles 


speak 




spoke 


spoken 


take 




took 


taken 


swim 




fswam 
Lswum 


swum 


Put the above verbs 


in 


sentences. 





Example : Pixsent. I choose to go. 
Past. I chose the largest. 
Past Participle. He has chosen very wisely. 

137. Conjugation of Verbs, For purposes of sentence 
analysis and construction a classified arrangement of the 
forms of verbs according to voice, mode, tense, number, and 
person is found useful. Such an arrangement of verbs is 
called Conjugation. 

A full conjugation of the verbs '' be " and '' see " is given 
in App. XVII. Before examining the forms there given, it 
may be well for you to write out the forms of a given verb, 
as '' love," from what you have already learned. The follow- 
ing blanks will suggest the order of classification : 



Indicative Mode 
active voice passive voice active voice passive voice 

Present Tense Present Perfect Tense 



r I . I love 
Sing. < 2. Thou - 



1 



L3. He- 
ri. We- 
Plur. ^ 2. You - 
L3- They 



I am loved 

Thou 

He 

We 

You 

They — — 



Thou 
He — 
We — 

You- 
They 



I 

Thou 
He — 
We- 
You- 
They 



1 82 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Past Tense Past Perfect Tense 

Sing. ^ 2. 

L3- 

fi. 

Plur. ^ 2. 

13- 

Future Tense Future Perfect Tense 

n. — 



Sing. ^ 2 

I 
L3 

ri 
Plur.<; 2 

13 

The same plan and order may be followed in other modes. 

138. EXERCISES 

I. Make a choice of the words in parenthesis and give the 
reason for your choice. 

1. Nine dollars a week (is, are) paid to each workman. 

2. (Have, has) either of you finished the book ? 

3. Either you or he (was, were) to blame. 

4. A number of the trains (was, were) delayed by the storm. 

5. Either the clock or the watch (is, are) slow. 

6. ^^ Canterbury Tales " (was, were) written by Chaucer. 

7. Each of the states (has, have) two senators. 

8. Everybody (has, have) offered assistance to the sufferers. 

9. It (don't, does n't) take many days to reach London. 
10. Neither tea nor coffee (is, are) as healthful as water. 

II. Perseverance as well as courage (is, are) necessary for 
success. 

12. Before he (lay, laid) down, he (lay, laid) the book on the table. 

13. They (lay, laid) the wounded boy on the cot. 



VERBS AXD VERBALS 1 83 

14. He had (laid, lain) there an hour when the doctor arrived. 

15. The moon had (rose, risen) and showed the dangers of the 
padi. 

16. Xeither of the boys (has, have) returned (his, their) book. 

17. Xo one except the members (was, were) admitted to the 
meeting. 

18. A large collection of minerals (was, were) exhibited in the 
Colorado building. 

19. It is one of the sweetest songs that (has, have) been written. 

20. By this one mistake (^has been, have been) caused most of the 
delays. 

21. Each of the boys (make, makes') his own plan. 

22. The summons to appear before the judge (was, were) sent 
at noon. 

23. Latin or French (is, are") required for admission. 

24. Latin and French (^is, are) required. 

25. The kindness of his friends (gives, give) him courage. 

26. All of the great victories except one (was, were) gained on 
the sea. 

27. Western cattle (is, are) shipped to Kansas City and Chicago. 

28. The mob (was, were) scattered by the militia. 

29. The mob (was, were) determined to force their way into the 
palace. 

30. I saw the letter (laying, lying) on his desk. 

31. The doctor ordered him to (lay, lie) down. 

32. Then another set of bees (take, takes) up the work. 

33. Waves of fragrance (is, are) borne to us from the white 
clover. 

34. Rippling through the branches (^go, goes) the sunshine. 

35. The sight of the flowers (call, calls) back the robin's song. 

36. Each day and each hour (bring, brings) its own duty. 

37. Wisdom (is, are) stem sorrow's patient child. 

38. Each (has, have"^ his lonely peak and on each heart 
Envy or scorn or hatred (tear, tears) lifelong 
With vulture beak. 



1 84 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

39. Great deeds and feelings (finds, find) a home among the 
untaught poor. 

40. Truth (need, needs) no champion. 

41. One or the other (has, have) made a mistake. 

42. Neither John nor Fred (is, are) playing on the team to-day. 

43. The party (has, have) gone to the diamond mines of South 
Africa. 

44. They (sat, set) the chairs in a row. 

45. They (sat, set) perfectly still watching the bird. 

46. Yonder (lives, live) a poet and a scholar. 

47. He (doesn't, don't) write well. 

48. Each of the boys (do, does) a great deal for (his, their) family. 

49. The omission of unnecessary words (give, gives) clearness 
to the definition. 

50. This is one of the best stories that (has, have) been written 
by him. 

II. Change the italicized verbs to the past tense and to 
one of the perfect tenses, and explain their use. 

Model : He does his work faithf idly , 

" He did his work faithfully." The verb ^' did," past tense, refers to 

action in past time. 
" He has done his work faithfully." The verb ^^ has done," present 

perfect tense, refers to a past act completed in the present. 

1. He does his work faithfully. 

2. I lie down every day. 

3. I lay the book on the table. 

4. I get the bread at the bakery. 

5. \ forget what your name is. 

6. He eats his dinner at noon. 

7. They choose to study rather than to play. 

8. He begins well. 

9. She bids us to come. 
10. The wind blows hard. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 1 85 

11. They luill come to-morrow. 

12. I ride ten miles every day. 

13. \ see the stars. 

14. He sets the pitcher on the table and then sits down. 

15. He drinks coffee. 

16. The boys swim very well. 

17. She w?ites to her mother every day. 

18. He takes cold easily. 

139. EXERCISE 

Analyze, according to the model given in 58, the following 
sentences and parse the verbs, participles, nouns, pronouns, 
and adjectives. 

Model : Lear7i to labor and to wait, 

r. " Learn," regular, transitive verb ; active, present, imperative ; second 
person singular or plural number to agree with its subject ^^ thou " or 
" you " understood. 

2. ^^ To labor," present active infinitive, direct object of ^' learn." 

1. Respect yourself. 

2. To hear is to obey. 

3. Honor is virtue's reward. 

4. Above it stood the seraphs. 

5. Learn to labor and to wait. 

6. I that speak to thee am he. 

7. Architecture is frozen music. 

8. Be slow in choosing a friend. 

9. None but the brave deserves the fair. 

10. The perfection of art is to conceal art. 

11. Hear the just law, the judgment of the skies. 

12. Oh, what a noble mind is here o'erthrown ! 

13. To look at thee unlocks a warmer clime. 

14. By others' faults wise men correct their own. 

15. He that hates truth shall be the dupe of lies. 



1 86 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

16. He jests at scars who never felt a wound. 

17. My cottage, while you grace it, is a palace. 

18. Home they brought him slain with spears. 

19. Knowledge is now no more a fountain sealed. 

20. The path is smooth that leadeth on to danger. 

21. If you have tears, prepare to shed them now. 

22. Love your enemies. Bless them that curse you. 

23. Love thyself last ; cherish those hearts that hate thee. 

24. Avoid keeping company with the depraved. 

25. Teach self-denial by making its practice pleasurable. 

26. Nothing great was ever achieved without enthusiasm. 

27. The ear trieth words as the mouth tasteth meat. 

28. It is never too late to be what you might have been. 

29. Cheered by the good man's words, Evangeline labored and 
waited. 

30. The children of to-day will be the architects of our country's 
destiny. 

31. O strong hearts and true ! Not one went back in the 
Mayflowe7\ 

32. The stone which the builders rejected is become the head 
of the corner. 

33. The path of life might be 

Ever bright before us. 

34. Toiling, — rejoicing, — sorrowing, 

Onward through life he goes. 

35. Waiting till the west-wind blows, 

The freighted clouds at anchor lie. 

36. Teach me to feel another's woe, 

To hide the fault I see. 

37. Base envy withers at another's joy, 

And hates the excellence it cannot reach. 

38. For Satan finds some mischief still 

For idle hands to do. 

39. An hour passed on ; the Turk awoke ; 

That bright dream was his last. 



VERBS AND VERBALS 187 

40. Little Jack Horner sat in a corner, 

Eating his Christmas pie. 

41. The harp, his sole remaining joy, 

Was carried by an orphan boy. 

42. Still achieving, still pursuing. 

Learn to labor and to wait. 

43. A little fire is quickly trodden out ; 
Which, being suffer 'd, rivers cannot quench. 

44. There is a tide in the affairs of men, 
Which, taken at the flood, leads on to fortune. 

45. The evil that men do lives after them ; 
The good is oft interred with their bones. 

46. Say to Robin a kind word, 

And tell him not to fret. 

47. A moral, sensible, and well-bred man 
Will not affront me, and no other can. 

48. All sat mute. 
Pondering the danger with deep thoughts. 

49. The soul that rises with us, our life's star. 

Hath had elsewhere its setting. 

50. 'T is greatly wise to know, before we 're told 
The melancholy news, that we grow old. 

51. The charities that soothe and heal and bless 

Are scattered at the feet of man like flowers. 

52. I hear the rushing of the blast 

That through the snowy valley flies. 

53. If I try to escape, they surround me ; 

They seem to be everywhere. 

54. Let not ambition mock their useful toil. 

Their homely joys and destiny obscure. 

55. The lighthouse lifts its massive masonry, 
A pillar of fire by night, of cloud by day. 

56. The green leaves quiver with the cooling wind 

And make a checkered shadow on the ground. 

57. Smooth runs the water where the brook is deep. 



1 88 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

58. Mute with amazement and sorrow, Priscilla the Puritan 
maiden, 
Looked into Alden's face, her eyes dilated with wonder. 
69. Be not false, unkind, or cruel ; 
Banish evil words and strife ; 
Keep thy heart a temple holy ; 
Love the lovely, aid the lowly ; 
Thus shall each day be a jewel 
Strung upon thy thread of life. 
60. In the country, close by the roadside, stood a little farm- 
house. Perhaps you have passed by and seen it yourself. The 
flower garden in front of the house was surrounded by a painted 
wooden fence. Close to the fence, in the midst of the fresh green 
grass, grew a little daisy. The sun smiled upon it as brightly 
as upon the splendid garden flowers, and so it grew from hour 
to hour. 

Hans Christian Andersen's "The Daisy" 



CHAPTER X 

ADVERBS 

140. Uses and Kinds of Adverbs. From what you have 
already learned about adverbs (25), pick out the adverbs in the 
following sentences and tell what each one modifies : 

1. I shall go there soon. 

2. He did his work well. 

3. She is now almost well. 

4. We want you to come over. 

5. The work was faithfully done. 

6. He is more comfortable to-day. 

(i) Simple Adverbs. The adverbs used in the above sen- 
tences are called Simple Adverbs because they are used simply 
to modify the meaning of a verb, adjective, or other adverb. 
Such adverbs include 

(a) Adve7'bs of place, ?in^\\mY\gt\\QOfitst\on Where ? Such 
are ''there" in i and ''over" in 4. Other adverbs of this 
kind in common use are 



above 


back 


up 


hence 


in 


forward 


below 


down 


here 


hither 


out 


yonder 



{b) Adverbs of time, answering the question Whe7i ? Such 
are " soon " in i and " now " in s. Other adverbs of time are 



again 


first 


hereafter once 


never 


seldom 


always 


often 


formerly next 
189 


to-day 


to-morrow 



I90 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

{c) Adverbs of manne7', answering the question How? 
Such are ''well" in 2 and ''faithfully" in 5. Other com- 
mon adverbs of this kind are 

aloud bravely ill quickly otherwise thus 

badly foolishly so slowly somehow truly 

(d) Advei'bs of degree, answering the question Hozv miicJi ? 
or How little? Such are " almost " in 3 and " more " in 6. 
Other adverbs of degree in common use are 

all greatly least most no scarcely 

very little less much quite enough 

(2) Interrogative Adverbs. Adverbs that are used to 
introduce questions are called Interrogative Adverbs, as 

Where are you going ? When do you leave ? 

Other interrogative adverbs are "how," "why," "whither," 
and " whence." 

(3) Conjunctive Adverbs. Adverbs used as conjunctions 
are sometimes called Conjunctive Adverbs, as 

I shall return when it is pleasant. 

Conjunctive adverbs generally connect adverbial clauses with 
other parts of the sentence, but sometimes they connect ad- 
jective and substantive clauses as in the following sentences : 

This is the place where I found the book (adjective). 
I will show you where I found the book (objective). 

The conjunctive adverbs most commonly used are "how," 
"when," "whence," "whither," and "why." 

(4) Phrasal Adverbs. Phrases which are used as adverbs, 
and which cannot be separated into preposition and object, are 
called Phrasal Adverbs, as 

At last I am ready to go. 

He tried m vai7i to finish the work. 



ADVERBS 



191 



as yet 


at last 


at all 


at least 


at best 


at length 


at larp:e 


at once 



ere long 


of late 


in short 


of old 


in vain 


on high 


of course 


by far 



The following list includes the most frequently used 
phrasal adverbs : 

by all means 
one by one 
face to face 
for good 

(5) Give sentences, using each kind of adverb. 

141. Comparison of Adverbs. Some adverbs like adjec- 
tives (110) have degrees of comparison. The comparative and 
superlative degrees are formed either by adding '' er " and 
'' est " to the positive, or by prefixing to the positive '' more " 
and '' most " or '' less " and '' least," as 



Positive 
soon 
fast 

frequently 



Comparative 
sooner 
faster 
fmore frequently 



Superlative 
soonest 
fastest 

most frequently 
least frequently 



Lless frequently 

Most adverbs are compared in the latter way, especially 
adverbs ending in 'My" The following adverbs are compared 
by means of the endings '' er " and '' est" : 

long 
loud 
low 



cheap 

dear 

early 



fast 

hard 

high 



near 
often 

plain 



quick 
slow 



soon 



Some adverbs are more or less irregular in comparison, as 



Pos. 
far 



COMPAR. 



1 r farther 
forth J L further 



Superl. 
farthest 
furthest 



ill 
late 



worse 



later 



worst 



r latest 



< 



Llast 



Pos. 
little 

much 

near 
well 



COMPAR. 

less 

more 



nearer i 



Superl. 
least 
most 
r nearest 



better 



Lnext 



best 



192 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The adverb '' rather " is used only in the comparative. 

142. The Use of Adverbs and Adjectives. The mistake so 
frequently made of using adverbs in place of adjectives, and 
vice versa, will be avoided if the proper functions of the two 
parts of speech are kept clearly in mind and constantly ap- 
plied in practice. The greatest difficulty occurs after such 
verbs as ''look," ''feel," "sound," "seem," "appear"; 
also when adverbs and adjectives are alike in form, as 
"all," "little," "much," "more," "most," "even," "far," 
"late," etc. 

Review 112, 2, and observe carefully the uses of the itali- 
cized words in the following sentences : 

1. He appeared v^xy friendly, 

2. He was all powerful. 

3. They xd^xvfast, 

4. We come from 2, far country. 

5. Did you go far yesterday ? 

6. Please go a little faster. 

7. I feel very well to-day. 

8. He is doing well. 

9. It is well with us. 

10. I feel warm in this garment. 

11. I feel war7nly on this subject. 

12. She looks better to-day. 

13. He can do that better than I. 

14. He spoke angrily to his brother. 

15. He looked angiy. 

Notice that " friendly " in i, though ending in " ly," is not 
an adverb. Why } 

"All" in 2 tells Jiow powerful he was, and is therefore 
an adverb. 

Parse "little" in 6. Compare "well" as used in /, 8, and 9. 



ADVERBS 193 

What is the difference in the use of ''far" in 4 and 5 ; 
also in the use of '' warm " and '' warmly "in 10 and 11? 
Compare '' better " as used in 12 and in 13. 

143. EXERCISES 

I. Use in sentences the adverbs given in 141. Use them 
in all degrees. 

II. Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : 

In parsing an adverb, tell what kind it is and how it is used 
in the sentence, thus : 

Examples : ''Along " in i is an adverb of place ; it modifies the verb 
"walked." 

'' When " in 2 is a conjunctive adverb ; it modifies the verb '' found " 
and connects '' when they found him " with '' could stand." 

1. He walked along very slowly. 

2. He could hardly stand up when they found him. 

3. You should not eat too rapidly. 

4. I do not know why the train is so late. 

5. How could he do that so well ? 

6. He rushed forward eagerly to assist his friend. 

7. Hereafter I shall try to do better. 

8. He was scarcely able to sit up. 

9. Go very slowly and perhaps I can keep up with you. 

10. We may possibly leave to-morrow. 

11. Please go a little more slowly. 

12. He was ill; therefore he was not strong enough to stand 
the journey. 

13. I arrived too late to take the train. 

14. Some of the passengers were injured but little. 

15. Up rose old Barbara Frietchie then. 
■16. If you 're waking, call me early. 

17. Slowly and sadly we laid him down. 

18. And we bitterly thought of the morrow. 



194 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

III. State exactly the force of each itahcized word in the 
following sentences by telling whether it is used as an adjec- 
tive or an adverb : 

1. He looks well, 

2. He looks good, 

3. He mowed the lawn well. 

4. I am feeling worse this morning. 

5. He acts worse and worse every day. 

6. You will be better if you take this medicine. 

7. He is quite different from his brother. 

8. He does his work quite differe?itly from his brother. 

9. I arrived safe last evening. 

10. How beautiful those flowers look ! 

11. I wish he would write more plainly^ so that I could read his 
letters easily, 

12. I found the way easy. 

13. I found the way easily, 

14. That is a real good coin. 

15. That is a really good coin. 

16. He alone knew the way. 

17. He found the way all alone. 

18. Only an experienced person would serve the purpose. 

19. If I were only rich, I could go on the journey. 

20. He writes better than he did formerly. 

IV. Point out the words which you think are adverbs and 
those which you think are adjectives, and give a reason in 
each case for your opinion. 

1. She looks beautiful this evening. 

2. You must be exceedingly careful. 

3. We feel warm after exercising. 

4. I feel warmly on this point. 

5. I am feeling really well to-day. 

6. I can hear you distinctly if you speak slowly. 



ADVERBS 195 

7. It is glorious weather. 

8. It is gloriously fine weather. 

9. If he were only well enough, he could go with you to-day. 

10. He cannot do it all alone. 

11. I am very much pleased with your work. 
13. That red rose smells very sweet. 

13. Is the weather pleasant enough for us to go far to-day ? 

V. Supply the correct word in each of the following sen- 
tences and give a reason for your choice : 

1. He looks (strange, strangely) with his Turkish suit on. 

2. He looked (strange, strangely) at me. 

3. They lived very (happy, happily) together. 

4. She appeared very (happy, happily) when I saw her. 

5. They talked (quiet, quietly) about their lessons. 

6. They seemed to be (quiet, quietly) watching the game. 

7. They became (quiet, quietly) as soon as the bell rang. 

8. He felt (bad, badly) and sent for a physician. 

9. They behaved (bad, badly) when they were left alone. 

10. He seemed (real, really) glad to get home. 

11. His words sounded (harsh, harshly) to me, 

12. I think he spoke (harsh, harshly). 

13. They sat (silent, silently) in their seats. 

14. He looked (terrible, terribly) as he fought. 

15. He appeared (awkward, awkwardly) to his friends. 

16. The carriage looks (good, well) and rides (easy, easily). 

17. General Thomas's men stood (firm, firmly) at the battle of 
Chickamauga. 

18. Mary sat (silent, silently) in her seat. 

19. How is your health ? Very (good, well), I thank you. 

20. How are you to-day ? Very (good, well). 

21. It is (real, really) gold which the chain is made of. 

22. I can walk (easier, more easily) than I can run. 

23. He behaved (different, differently) (from, than) his friend. 

24. The plan was put through (easy, easily) enough. 



CHAPTER XI 
PREPOSITIONS 

144. Uses of Prepositions. You have learned (27) that a 
preposition shows the relation of its object to some other 
word. You have also learned (50) that a preposition intro- 
duces a prepositional phrase. 

Point out the prepositions and prepositional phrases in 
the sentences given in 56 and tell the words between which 
each preposition shows relation. 

Particular attention should be paid to the form of the pro- 
noun used as the object of a preposition. Mistakes in case 
forms are especially likely to occur (i) when the object pre- 
cedes the preposition, as 

Whom are you looking for ? 
This is the man whom I spoke of, 

and (2) when the pronoun is part of a compound object, as 

Between you and me, I do not like it. 
The farm was sold to Mr. Brown and me. 

145. Prepositions in Common Use. The following list of 
words includes the prepositions most frequently used : 



across 


beyond 


between 


down 


concerning 


above 


among 


beneath 


but 


excepting 


about 


around 


behind 


for 


except 


along 


before 


beside 


by 


during 


after 


amid 


below 
196 


at 


from 



PREPOSITIONS 197 



over 


till 


throughout 


into 


without 


until 


on 


respecting 


off 


within 


unto 


up 


through 


of 


upon 


save 


to 


toward 


in 


with 



Construct sentences, using ten of the above-named preposi- 
tions and point out the object of each. Tell to what the prep- 
ositional phrase belongs and what kind (adjective, adverbial) 
it is. 

146. Phrases used as Prepositions. Sometimes more than 

one word may be used as a preposition, as '' out of " in the 

sentence 

The children went out of the house. 

The following phrases are frequently used as the equiva- 
lents of prepositions, and when so used may be called such.^ 

according to because of from out 

alongside by means of in regard to 

apart from by reason of instead of 

as regards by way of on account of 

as to (or for) for the sake of out of 

Use some of the above-named prepositional phrases in 
sentences and tell to what they relate. 

Model : That zvord is p7vno2mced correctly according to 
Webster, 

" According to " is a phrasal preposition and shows the relation 
between " Webster " and ^^ is pronounced." 

147. Choice of Prepositions. Great care should be taken 
to use prepositions that exactly express the ideas intended. 

1 To distinguish these from simple prepositions, they are sometimes 
called phrase or phrasal prepositions. 



198 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The following prepositions are frequently misused or mis- 
placed : 

1. '' In," '' at." In general, '' in" is used before names of 
places referred to as having bounds, and '' at " before names 
referred to as fixed points ; as 

He lives in New York at 1000 BroadnDay. 

2. '' In," '' into." '' In" implies rest, and '' into " implies 

motion ; as ^^ ,. . ,, 

He lives in the city. 

He went into the house. 

3. ''Beside," ''besides." "Beside" means "near to"; 
" besides " means " in addition to." 

I sat beside him. 

He had two sons besides me. 

4. "Between," "among." "Between" is used when 
speaking of two objects ; " among " when speaking of several 

objects. 

There was a good feeling bettueen the two boys. 
The master went among his boys freely. 

148. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the prepositions and prepositional phrases and 
tell how they are used. 

Example : ^^ Of " in i is a preposition and shows the relation be- 
tween its object '* country " and the noun ^' citizen." 

'^ Of this country " in i is a prepositional phrase and limits ^^ citizen." 
It is an adjective phrase. 

1. Every citizen of this country has a duty to perform. 

2. The Pilgrims settled at Plymouth. 

3. The Indians came to them from the woods. 

4. They brought their bows and arrows with them. 



PREPOSITIONS 199 

5. They sometimes shot from the thickets. 

6. They were surprised at the novel sights. 

7. They sometimes shot from behind trees. 

8. The Indians had lived in America many thousand years 
before the Europeans came. 

9. Some of them were more savage than others. 

10. The most savage Indians lived in the northwestern part of 
North America. 

11. The barbarous Indians lived in the eastern part of the con- 
tinent, and those who were half civilized lived in the southern part. 

12. The religion of the barbarous Indians consisted in the wor- 
ship of their dead ancestors and of the powers of nature. 

13. These powers were looked upon by some as animals. 

14. The half -civilized Indians who lived in South America and 
in the southern part of North America built fortresses of brick. 

15. Sometimes they built their fortresses high up on the cliffs 
like the nests of eagles. 

II. Use one of the words that are printed in parenthesis 
in each of the following sentences, and in the case of pro- 
nouns give the reason for your choice : 

1. He divided the marbles equally (among, between) four boys. 

2. Longfellow was educated (at, in) Bowdoin College. 

3. Please put the paper (in, into) the waste-basket. 

4. The appearance of the city was different (from, than, to) 
what I expected. (App. XIII.) 

5. How does this school compare in numbers (to, with) the 
one you attended last year ? 

6. (Who, whom) (beside, besides) me did you write to while 
you were in Europe ? 

7. Why do you always differ (from, with) us when we express 
our views ? 

8. I agree (to, with) the proposition you make. 

9. We can settle this matter (among, between) (we, us) two. 
10. They will wait (on, for) you at dinner. 



CHAPTER XII 

CONJUNCTIONS 

149. Use of Conjunctions. The use of conjunctions (29) is, 
as we have seen, to connect words or groups of words. 

Examine carefully the following sentences and tell what 
each conjunction connects : 

1. I like work and play. 

2. I like to work and to play. 

3. I think that he should go or stay. 

4. I think that he should go or that he should stay. 

5. They come from Europe and Asia. 

6. They come from Europe and from Asia. 

7. He left because it rained. 

8. I will go when you go. 

9. He may play, but I prefer to work. 

10. If it is pleasant, I shall go. 

11. I am taller than you. 

What two words does '' and " in i connect ? 

What two phrases does '' and " in 2 connect ? 

Compare the use of '' or " in 3 and 4 in respect to what it 
connects. 

In what respect do 5 and 6 differ ? 

The conjunction ''because" in 7 connects the clause ''it 
rained " with the verb " left." 

What does " when " in 8 connect ? 

What two clauses does " but " connect in 9 ? 

What is the subordinate clause in 10.? What is the con- 
junction and what does it connect ? 



CONJUNCTIONS 
What words are understood in 1 1 ? 



20I 



Conjunctions are used to connect words, phrases, and clauses, 
and sometimes to introduce a subordinate clause. 

150. Kinds of Simple Conjunctions, i. From the sen- 
tences given in 149 we see that some conjunctions, hke 
''and," ''or," "but," connect words or phrases or clauses 
of equal interest or importance. These are called Coordinate 
Conjunctions. 

The principal coordinate conjunctions are 



notwithstanding 


than 


still 


further 


nor 


consequently 


also 


either 


hence 


thus 


accordingly 


and 


else 


however 


so 


therefore 


both 


whence 


wherefore 


or 


moreover 


but 


neither 


otherwise 


yet 



Use in sentences ten of the above conjunctions and tell 
what they connect. 

Model : / was very tired ; accordingly I left early, 

^^ Accordingly " is a coordinate conjunction connecting the two 
clauses '^ I was very tired " and ^^ I left early." 

2. Other conjunctions, like "when," "because," "that," 
introduce dependent or subordinate clauses and are called 
Subordinate Conjunctions. 

The principal subordinate conjunctions are 



after 


as 


although 


since 


before 


albeit 


ere 


supposing 


lest 


until 


except 


in 


notwithstanding 


than 


whereas 


unless 


fori 


otherwise 


that 


whether 


because 


if 


provided 


though 


while 



1 This word is sometimes used as a coordinate conjunction, as at the 
beginning of the sentence *' For I also am a man set under authority." 



202 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Use any of the above conjunctions in sentences and tell 
what they connect. 

Model : After the shower is over^ zve zvill go on oicr way, 

" After " is a subordinate conjunction introducing the subordinate 
clause '^ after the shower is over," and connecting it with ^' will go." 

151. Conjunctions in Pairs, i. Conjunctions are some- 
times used in pairs, as in the following sentences : 

1 . Either you or I must remain. 

2. Though all men deny thee, yet will not I. 

3. The judge was both learned and just. 

These conjunctions, ''either — or," ''though — yet," "both 

— and," are called Correlative Conjunctions. 

Other correlative conjunctions are "as — as," "neither — 
nor," "not only — but," "not only — but also," "whether 

— or." 

2. In the use of correlative conjunctions care should be 
taken to give them the proper place in a sentence. For ex- 
ample, we should say, "They are to meet us either at the 
post office or at the bank." Frequently the same thought is 
incorrectly expressed by placing " either " before " to meet." 
Do you know why this is incorrect 1 What should " either — 
or " connect } 

Point out the correlatives in the following sentences and 
tell what they connect : 

1. He taught us both to read and to write. 

2. He not only gave me food, but helped me on my way. 

3. He does not know whether he will go or [he will] not [go]. 

4. They will neither give me work nor help me to get work. 

5. Henry knows the way as well as John [knows it]. 



CONJUNCTIONS 203 

152. Phrasal Conjunctions, i. Groups of two or three 
words are sometimes used as conjunctions, as ''He walks as 
ifh^ were tired." ''As long as the weather is good, I shall 
remain." These expressions, ''as if" and "as long as" are 
sometimes called Phrasal Conjunctions. Such conjunctions are 
generally used to introduce a dependent clause. The phrasal 
conjunctions in common use are 

according as as if ' in order that 

as far as as though no sooner than 

as good as except that provided that 

as soon as inasmuch as so far as 

etc. in case that so that 

2. Point out the conjunctions in the following sentences 
and tell what they connect : 

1. He is as tall as I [am tall]. 

2. So that we may arrive in time, we will start early. 

3. Boys as well as girls will be invited. 

4. Inasmuch as the weather is fine, we will take a ride. 

5. We will go, provided that the weather is suitable. 

6. They will arrive no sooner than we. 

153. EXERCISES 

I. Point out the coordinate and subordinate conjunctions 
in the following sentences and tell what they connect: 

1. The floods came and the winds blew. 

2. Time and tide wait for no man. 

3. Give me neither poverty nor riches. 

4. Were I not Alexander, I would be Diogenes. 

5. Few and short were the prayers we said. 

6. Neither this man sinned nor his parents. 

7. Thou shalt love thy neighbor as [thou lovest] thyself. 



204 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

8. Fools rush in where angels fear to tread. 

9. Learn to labor and to wait. 

10. It was the time when lilies blow, 

And clouds are highest up in air. 

11. For manners are not idle, but the fruit 

Of loyal nature and of noble mind. 

12. The old order changeth, yielding place to new ; 
And God fulfills himself in many ways, 

Lest one good custom should corrupt the world. 

13. The splendor falls on castle walls 

And snowy summits old in story ; 
The long light shakes across the lakes. 
And the wild cataract leaps in glory. 

14. When I was a beggarly boy 

And lived in a cellar damp, 
I had not a friend nor a toy. 
But I had Aladdin's lamp. 

II. By means of conjunctions combine sentences, as indi- 
cated, so as to form compound and complex sentences. 

Example : It is a pleasant day and we will go to ride. 
We will go to ride because it is a pleasant day. 

1. It is a pleasant day. We will go to ride. 

2. He sent for the doctor. He was ill. 

3. I did not call for you. It was raining hard. 

4. The meeting was postponed. There were few people present. 

5. It is a pleasure to walk in the country. The weather is 
pleasant. The leaves are just coming out. 

6. I shall not work to-morrow. I am ill. I can get some one to 
take my place. 

7. They will go to Greece. They may study art there. They 
may visit places of historical interest. 



CHAPTER XIII 

GENERAL REVIEW 

154. MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 

Note. The reasons for the right construction of a few of the sen- 
tences given in this chapter will be found in the Appendix, as indicated. 

I. Use the proper form of pronoun (''I," '' me," '' we," 
''us," ''myself," "ourselves") in each blank and give the 
reason for your selection. 

1. They can do that as well as . 

2. Who borrowed my knife yesterday ? . 

3. All have gone away except you and . 

4. Cousin Charles visited my brother and . 

5. It may have been whom you met. 

6. Between you and , it seems quite out of place. 

7. four boys are going to have a fine time. 

8. Would you do it if you were ? 

9. If it is necessary I will go. 

10. I do not see how we can justify . 

11. This is not an agreeable thing for you and . 

12. He told John and to call very soon. (App. IV.) 

13. To whom was his question directed, you or ? 

14. Who will write the letter, you or ? 

15. It was meant for either you or . 

II. Insert the proper form of pronoun (''he," "his," 
"him," "she," "her," "they," "their," "them," "himself," 



2o6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

'' herself," '' themselves ") in each blank and give the reason 
for your choice. 

1. I believe it was . 



2. I can run as fast as . 

3. Boys like ought to know better. 

4. Where are you and going next Saturday ? 

5. Will you let and me go to the party ? (App. IV.) 

6. It could not have been for were not in town. 

7. It was either or her sister that called. 

8. I have not seen John and together for some time. 

9. One after another of the boys told story. 

10. All the boys were very sober as left the room. 

11. It was the queen whom we saw riding. 

12. I knew it to be from the sound of his voice. (App. IV.) 

13. Both of the men hastened to assure the judge that 

would be present the next day. 

14. England expects every man to do duty. 

15. If any one calls, please tell that I shall be in soon. 

16. Let each of the girls come promptly as name is called. 

17. Every one should be able to control at all times. 

18. Which of the two boys learned lesson first ? 

19. Every man and boy did work as well as could. 

20. Each of the boys must answer for . 

• 

III. Insert the proper form of pronoun (''who," ''whom," 
"whoever," "whomever," "whomsoever") in each blank and 
give the reason for your choice. 

1 . did he go with ? 

2. did you you say wrote the story ? 

3. does he intend to invite ? 

4. I will give the book to wants it. 

5. Is that the lady you said was here ? 

6. Mr. A., Miss B. is engaged to, arrived yesterday. 

7. Do you know you gave the knife to ? 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 207 

8. do you suppose it was that I saw ? 

9. Do you know I can hire to take care of the lawn ? 

10. You may give it to you please. 

11. He was the very man I afterwards learned was the 

prisoner. 

12. I met Thomas's friend in the park and do you sup- 
pose he took me to be ? (App. VIII, 2.) 

13. He is a boy I know always tells the truth. 

14. He is a boy I know to be truthful. (App. VIII, 2.) 

15. You may select you please. 

16. We have not forgotten the friends we left behind. 

17. returns the lost package will be rewarded. 

18. besides him do you think was sent .^ 

19. of all our friends shall we send for? 

20. I will give this book to most deserves it. 

IV. Use in each blank the proper adjective (''this," ''that," 
" these," " those ") and give the reason for your selection : 

1. How do you like kind of apples ? 

2. May I borrow scissors for a while ? 

3. How much do you sell oats for ? 

4. news about the steamships is very important. 

5. I never liked kind of goods. 

6. Days of kind are not very plenty. 

7. We ought to take out ashes. 

8. Will you allow me to see memoranda ? 

9. I found spectacles on the floor. 

10. Can you weigh me with scales ? 

V. Use the correct form of the verb "be" or "have" 
("am," "be," "is," "was," "were," "been," "has," "have," 
"has been," "have been") in each sentence and give the 
reason for your choice. 

1. Neither of the men ready to begin. 

2. either of you ever ridden in a balloon ? 



2o8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

3. One of the children been quite ill. 

4. Each lady and gentleman been invited. 

5. I hope that your family very well. 

6. Which of these boys the older ? 

7. My friend and classmate been visiting me. 

8. Ten thousand dollars too much to pay for it. 

9. Our club had four meetings this year. 

10. If I he, I would not think of going. 

11. either your mother or father going with you ? 

12. The number present very large. 

13. Neither the teacher nor the pupils late. 

14. your brother or you ever been in Europe ? 

15. One of my eyes troubling me lately. 

16. The house with all the furniture destroyed. 

17. She is one of the best cooks that ever worked for us. 

18. He or his friends believed to be guilty. 

19. Every boy and girl that could go there. 

20. Who of you wrong ? (Show why either of two num- 
bers of the same verb can be used here.) 

VI. Insert the correct verb or participle in each of the 
following blanks and give the tense of each : 

Note. The simple root forms of the verbs or participles to be used 
are as follows. (For the principal parts, see App. XVI.) 

am or be drink lay sing 

begin eat lie sit 

bid give run throw 

break go ring wear 

choose grow see work 

do invite set write 

1. I have not him to-day, but I him last week. 

2. I him when he it. 

3. Who that apple to you that you have just ? 

4. The window was by a stone which was by 

William. 



I 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 209 

5. He would have to our party if we had him. 

6. He a ten-mile race last week and has just a 

mile. 

7. Every one of the workmen except the two Browns 

nine hours a day. 

8. any of the girls of the class now ready to recite her 

lesson ? 

9. Have you all you are going to write upon the subject ? 

10. I two oranges and I one of them to my sister. 

11. Not less than one hundred dollars paid for the horse. 

12. Mathematics very difficult for me. 

13. There two sixes in twelve. 

14. either of you a match ? 

15. I down on the lounge last evening and slept an hour. 

16. Not one of all the sailors here ever been to sea before. 

17. We should have into the country to-day, it is so pleasant. 

1 8. Has Charley to go to school yet ? 

19. I choose this seat. Which seat have you .^ 

20. I have a great deal of water to-day. 

21. The children have so long in their seats that they can- 
not still. 

22. Have you the work } Yes ; I it yesterday. 

23. Please the dish on the table and let it there. 

24. How long have you (laid, lain) there ? 

25. He has just the song which you last evening. 

26. The suit which he was nearly out. 

27. I have in this chair two hours. How long have you 

in your chair ? 

28. He must have into the house before you came. 

29. I have ten letters to-day. Yesterday I six. 

30. School has already . It at nine o'clock. 

31. The bell has . It five minutes ago. 

32. After a hard day's work they down to rest. 

33. My father generally down after dinner. 

34. Will you please the lamp on the mantelpiece ? 



2IO ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

35. Uneasy the head that the crown. 

36. I her good-by when the boat left. 

37. He has to be a very tall boy. 

VII. Make a choice of the words in parenthesis and give 
the reason for your choice. 

1. (Who, whom) did you see, John or (I, me) ? 

2. (Who, whom) is it that you want, John or (I, me) ? 

3. Has every one finished (his, their) exercise ? 

4. Everybody seemed to be looking out for (himself, them- 
selves). 

5. I met a girl (who, whom) I believe was Mary. 

6. He expects James or (I, me) to do it. (App. IV.) 

7. We all know who it was that broke the window and (who, 
whom) the teacher accused. 

8. The colonel of the regiment with all his men (was, were) 
captured. 

9. Each of the men (receive, receives) (his, their) salary every 
month. 

10. Neither of the officials (seem, seems) to have any idea of 
honesty. 

11. Our fashionable cousins visited my sister and (I, me), (we, 
us) who live so (plain, plainly). 

12. (Is, are) either of those men (who, whom) you spoke of 
likely to be appointed ? 

13. (Do, does) he or his brother contest the will of (his, their) 
father ? 

14. The resemblance between the two boys (was, were) quite 
marked. 

15. It was Mary (who, whom) you told to come to you, not 
(I, me). 

16. It may have been (she, her) who wrote the article, but I 
always supposed it to be (he, him). (App. VIII, 2.) 

17. If any one should call while I am away, please tell (him^ 
them) that I (shall, will) be at home at four o'clock. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 2 II 

18. Let every book and every pencil and every pen be put in 
(its, their) proper place. 

19. You are not so much to blame as (he, him) that began the 
quarrel. 

20. Every one of my brothers (play, plays) on some musical 
instrument. 

21. He was a (real, really) good boy while he was away. 

22. How (beautiful, beautifully) she looks, and how (sweet, 
sweetly) her voice sounds ! 

23. Two pounds of beef (was, were) enough for our dinner. 

24. (This, these) news (was, were) very exciting. 

25. Athletics (is, are) a part of the regular work in some schools. 

26. I was glad (to meet, to have met) your friends. 

27. He said that none of the children (was, were) entitled to 
much sympathy. 

28. Neither Mr. Smith nor his partners (has, have) yet returned. 

29. The voice and manner of the speaker (was, w^ere) very 
agreeable. 

30. It (does n't, don't) make any difference to me whether it rains 
or not. 

31. Every one of the boys in the camp, large and small alike, 
(go, goes) barefooted. 

32. You should invite (he, him) as well as (I, me) to go with you. 

33. These trees are very different (from, than, to) what we saw 
yesterday. 

34. I expect to go (in, into) the country next week if it (be, is) 
pleasant. 

35. The money was divided equally (among, between) the three 
sons. 

36. Do you think we (shall, will) have pleasant weather to-day ? 

37. Let you and (I, me) go by ourselves. 

38. They know as well as (we, us) what ought to be done. 

39. Of the two brands of flour, which do you regard as the 
(better, best) ? 

40. I hope I shall succeed (as, like) he did. 



212 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

41. Each thought and each act of ours (has, have) (its, their) 
effect upon our lives. 

42. The man you speak of is Mr. Brown, (he, him) who has a 
large establishment in Philadelphia. 

43. A great scholar and statesman (has, have) passed to (his, 
their) reward. 

44. The assembly (is, are) not agreed as to the best means of 
reaching the difficulty. 

45. Whom should we blame for this accident.? (They, them) 
who left the switch open. 

46. I (drank, drunk) yesterday more milk than you have (drank, 
drunk) to-day. 

47. Every leaf and every flower (look, looks) as fresh as if (it, 
they) (was, Vv^ere) growing in June instead of in August. 

48. One or the other of the men (has, have) made a mistake in 
(his, their) testimony. 

49. My brother (lay, laid) his book on the table and then (lay, 
laid) down on the lounge. 

60. Do not (lie, lay) on the desk, but (sit, set) upright. 

51. The committee has made (its, their) report. 

52. Will either of you boys lend me (your, his, their) knife ? 

53. This is one of the most interesting subjects that (has, have) 
ever been presented. 

54. You are (exceeding, exceedingly) kind to do this for me. 

55. He acted very (different, differently) from his cousin. 

56. If I (was, were) (he, him), I would not go any (further, 
farther). 

57. I believe he (dare, dares) not do it. 

58. I want you and (he, him) to come with John and (I, me). 
(App. XIII.) 

59. I believe it to be (they, them) who (did, done) it. (App. 
XIII.) 

60. Nothing but detective stories (seem, seems) to interest 
him. 

61. I never quite liked (that, those) sort of men. 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 213 

62. Let prompt punishment be given to (whoever, whomever) 
breaks the law. 

63. If you were (I, me), which would you choose ? 

64. If I (was, were) (he, him), I (should, would) not do it. 

VIII. Distinguish in meaning between the following ex- 
pressions in parenthesis : 

1. He has (few) (a few) marbles left. 

2. I was glad (to see) (to have seen) her. 

3. You (must be) (must have been) very tired. 

4. If he (is) (were) well, he (will) (would) go away. 

5. Your brother looks (good) (well). 

6. We arrived home (safe) (safely). 

7. He waited (on) (for) the guests. 

8. I differ (from) (with) him. 

9. I intended (to go) (to have gone) last week. 

10. The teacher (shall) (will) be obeyed. 

11. You (shall) (will) hear from me to-morrow. 

12. We found the path up the mountain quite (easy) (easily). 

13. The captain told us that his orders (should) (would) be 
obeyed promptly. 

14. I (should like) (should have liked) (to hear) (to have heard) 
Lincoln's speech at Gettysburg. 

15. I like her better than (he) (him). 

16. The public (is) (are) cordially invited. 

17. If he (is) (were) present, what (can) (could) he do ? 

18. I saw one of the boys who (was) (were) here. 

19. I cannot help differing (with) (from) him. 

20. We (shall) (will) go as soon as he comes. 

21. We found our way about the city very (easy) (easily). 

22. I can (only go) (go only) once a week. 



2 14 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

IX. According to the model given in 58, analyze the fol- 
lowing sentences and parse each word : 

1. He robs Peter to pay Paul. 

2. Ambition makes my little less. 

3. To err is human, to forgive divine. 

4. Faithful friends are hard to find. 

5. To choose time is to save time. 

6. Cool shades and dews are round my way. 

7. Neither has anything he calls his own. 

8. Remember ^^ No cross, no crown.'' 

9. Let us be watchful of our liberties. 

10. I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him. 

11. Be patient, for the world is broad and wide. 

12. In this place ran Cassius' dagger through. 

13. Music hath charms to soothe the savage breast. 

14. In this 'tis God directs, in that 't is man. 

15. A transient calm the happy scenes bestow. 

16. Fools who came to scoff remained to pray. 

17. Never was a lady of Italy fairer to see in the face. 

18. Be true to your word, your work, and your friend. 

19. It is easy finding reasons why other people should be 
patient. 

20. Purge your conscience from dead works to serve the living 
God. 

21. When industry goes out of the door, poverty comes in at 
the window. 

22. Show me the man you honor; I know by that what kind 
of man you are yourself. 

23. Little curly-haired Eppie, the weaver's child, became an 
object of interest at several outlying homesteads. 

24. He that loveth a book will never want a faithful friend, a 
wholesome counselor, a cheerful companion, an effectual comforter. 

25. The gallant Ichabod then spent at least an extra half hour 
at his toilet, brushing and furbishing up his best, and indeed only, 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 215 

suit of rusty black, and arranging his locks by a bit of broken 
looking-glass that hung up in the schoolhouse. 

26. He was whistling a lively tune, 
As if he were very merry. 

27. All that glisters is not gold ; 
Often have you heard that told. 

28. I loved the brimming wave that swam 

Through quiet meadows round the mill. 

29. Long may our land be bright 
With freedom's holy light. 

30. All the world 's a stage, 
And all the men and women merely players. 

31. A little fire is quickly trodden out. 

Which, being suffered, rivers cannot quench. 

32. Life ! we have been long together, 
Through pleasant and through cloudy weather. 

33. A king sat on the rocky brow 
Which looks o'er sea-born Salamis. 

34. Still in thy right hand carry gentle peace, 
To silence envious tongues. 

35. Hope springs eternal in the human breast ; 
Man never is, but always to be, blest. 

36. From gold to gray, our wild sweet day 

Of Indian summer fades too soon. 

37. The robin and the bluebird, piping loud, 

Filled all the blossoming orchards with their glee. 

38. The charities that soothe and heal and bless 
Are scattered at the feet of man like flowers. 

39. Exceeding peace had made Ben Adhem bold, 
And, to the presence in the room, he said, 

" What writest thou ? " 

40. Leaves have their time to fall 

And flowers to wither at the north wind's breath. 

41. The vessel, now tossed 

Through the low-trailing rack of the tempest, is lost. 



2i6 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

42. Stone walls do not a prison make, 

Nor iron bars a cage. 

43. I am monarch of all I survey ; 

My right there is none to dispute. 

44. All that wealth e'er gave 
Awaits alike th' inevitable hour. 

45. To mourn a mischief that is past and gone 
Is the next way to draw new mischief on. 

46. Habits are soon assumed, but when we strive 
To strip them off, 't is being flayed alive. 

47. The gray-eyed morn smiles on the frowning night, 
Checkering the eastern clouds with streaks of light. 

48. From peak to peak the rattling crags among. 
Leaps the live thunder. 

49. Blaze, with your serried columns! I will not bend the knee; 
The shackles ne'er again shall bind the arm which now is free. 

50. Clad in doublet and hose, and boots of Cordovan leather 
Strode with a martial air Miles Standish, the Puritan captain. 

51. Merrily, merrily shall I live now 

Under the blossom that hangs on the bough. 

52. O wad some power the giftie gie us. 
To see oursels as ithers see us. 

53. A light wind blew from the gates of the sun. 

And waves of shadow went over the wheat. 

54. O welcome, pure-eyed Faith, white-handed Hope, 

Thou hovering angel, girt with golden wings ! 

55. Rest is not quitting the busy career ; 
Rest is the fitting of self to its sphere. 

56. Where ignorance is bliss, 
'T is folly to be wise. 

57. O 1 it is excellent 

To have a giant's strength, but it is tyrannous 
To use it like a giant. 

58. The breaking waves dashed high 

On a stern and rock-bound coast, 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 217 

And the woods against a stormy sky 
Their giant branches tossed. 

59. Ay, call it holy ground, 

The soil where first they trod ; 
They have left unstained what there they found, — 
Freedom to worship God. 

60. What we gave, we have ; 
What we spent, we had ; 
What we left, we lost. 

61. The merry linnet knew me, 
The squirrel knew me, and the dragon fly 
Shot by me like a flash of purple fire. 

62. The roses are a regal troop. 

And modest folk the daisies ; 
But bluebells of New England, 
To you I give my praises. 

63. I hear in the chamber above me 

The patter of little feet. 
The sound of a door that is opened, 
And voices soft and sweet. 

64. Black shadows fall 
From the lindens tall 

That lift aloft their massive wall 
Against the southern sky. 

65. We should count time by heart-throbs when they beat 
For God, for man, for duty. He most lives 

Who thinks most, feels the noblest, acts the best. 

66. His solemn manner and his words 

Had touched the deep mysterious chords 
That vibrate in each human breast. 

67. A single horseman rode at the head of the party, his bright 
arms catching a glance of the October sun as he moved steadily along. 

68. The Turk was dreaming of the hour 

When Greece, her knee in suppliance bent, 
Should tremble at his power. 



2i8 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

69. By the rude bridge that arched the flood, 

Their flag to April's breeze unfurled, 
Here once the embattled farmers stood, 
And fired the shot heard round the world. 

70. Lord of the universe ! shield us and guide us. 

Trusting thee always, through shadow and sun ! 
Thou hast united us, who shall divide us ? 
Keep us, O keep us, the many in one. 

71. When beechen buds begin to swell. 

And woods the bluebird's warble know. 
The yellow violet's modest bell 

Peeps from the last year's leaves below. 

72. Speak ! speak ! thou fearful guest ! 
Who with thy hidden breast 

Still in rude armor drest, 
Comest to daunt me. 

73. The Mountain and the Squirrel 
Had a quarrel. 

And the former called the latter '' Little Prig." 

74. Where the pools are bright and deep, 
Where the gray trout lies asleep. 

Up the river and o'er the lea. 
That 's the way for Billy and me. 

75. I come from haunts of coot and hern : 

I make a sudden sally 
And sparkle out among the fern, 
To bicker down a valley. 

76. Then lagoo, the great boaster, 
He the marvelous story-teller, 
He the traveler and the talker, 
He the friend of old Nokomis, 
Made a bow for Hiawatha. 

77. At the door on summer evenings 
Sat the little Hiawatha ; 

Heard the whispering of the pine trees, 



MISCELLANEOUS EXERCISES 219 

Heard the lapping of the waters, 
Sounds of music, sounds of wonder. 

78. One by one thy duties wait thee ; 

Let thy whole strength go to each ; 
Let no future dreams elate thee. 

Learn thou first what these can teach. 

79. To gild refined gold, to paint the lily. 
To throw a perfume on the violet. 

To smooth the ice, or add another hue 

Unto the rainbow, or with taper-light 

To seek the beauteous eye of heaven to garnish, 

Is wasteful and ridiculous excess. 

80. Strange to me now are the forms I meet 

When I visit the dear old town. 
But the native air is pure and sweet. 
And the trees that o'ershadow each well-known street 
As they balance up and down, 
Are singing the beautiful song. 
Are sighing and whispering still : 
^^ A boy's will is the wind's will 
And the thoughts of youth are long, long thoughts." 

81. Fourscore and seven years ago our fathers brought forth on 
this continent a new nation, conceived in liberty and dedicated to 
the proposition that all men are created equal. 

82. When I was a child, I spake as a child, I understood as a 
child, I thought as a child ; but when I became a man, I put away 
childish things. 

83. The greatest man is he who chooses the right with the 
most invincible resolution ; who resists the sorest temptations from 
within and without ; who bears the heaviest burdens cheerfully ; 
who is calmest in storms, and most fearless under menaces and 
frowns ; whose reliance on truth, on virtue, and on God is most 
unfaltering. 

84. Thou, too, sail on, O Ship of State ! 
Sail on, O Union, strong and great ! 



220 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Humanity with all its fears, 
With all the hopes of future years, 
Is hanging breathless on thy fate ! 
We know what Master laid thy keel, 
What Workmen wrought thy ribs of steel, 
Who made each mast, and sail, and rope, 
What anvils rang, what hammers beat. 
In what a forge and what a heat 
Were shaped the anchors of thy hope ! 

85. This lovely land, this glorious liberty, these benign institu- 
tions — the dear purchase of our fathers — are ours ; ours to en- 
joy, ours to preserve, ours to transmit. Generations past and gen- 
erations to come hold us responsible for this sacred trust. 

Webster 

86. Our fathers, from behind, admonish us with their anxious 

paternal voices : posterity calls out to us from the bosom of the 

future : the world turns hither its solicitous eyes : all, all conjure us 

to act wisely and faithfully, in the relation which we sustain. We 

can never indeed pay the debt which is upon us ; but by virtue, by 

morality, by religion, by the cultivation of every good principle and 

every good habit, we may hope to enjoy the blessing through our 

day and leave it unimpaired to our children. 

Webster 



APPENDIX 



Note to Teachers. This Appendix is intended for reference only. 
If it is used for purposes of study, pupils should be required to apply the 
facts learned by pointing out their significance in selections from their 
reading books and by constructing illustrative sentences. 



PARTS OF SPEECH 

Constant attention should be called to the fact that the use or 
function which a word has in a sentence determines the class to 
which it belongs, and that, therefore, the same word may be used 
as any one of two or three parts of speech. 

With this view of the classification of words we frequently find 

it difficult to name the part of speech to which a word properly 

belongs. For example, in the sentence ^^ He is present," '' present " 

may be properly regarded as an adjective. But the word ^^ here " 

in the equivalent sentence '^ He is here '' would, by most persons, 

be regarded as an adverb of place. The same uncertainty exists 

in the classification of such words as are italicized in the following 

sentences : 

They came from abi'oad. 

Eve7i he may sometimes err. 

He is very able as a lawyer. 

What real good does it do .^ 

Hope springs eternal in the human breast. 

The really important matter in the classification of doubtful 
words is not so much coming to a definite conclusion, as trying to 
see their exact use or function in the sentence. This process is 
aided sometimes by supplying needed words in the sentence or 
by using equivalent words. 



2 22 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The following notes may be of some assistance in naming the 
parts of speech. Some of the items refer to points already treated 
and some of them refer to what is given in other parts of the 
Appendix. 

1. Nouns, Words which are commonly used as adjectives and 
adverbs may be used as nouns, as shown in the following examples : 

None but the brave deserve they2?/r. 
Now is the time to make a beginning. 
North of here there is a dense forest. 

Phrases, clauses, and words which are used as mere names 
may be used as nouns, as in the following examples : 

To live to the truth is one's duty. 
Living to the tritth is one's duty. 
That one should live to the truth is evident. 
" / will live to the truth " was his motto. 

2. Fro7iouns, '^As" and '^ but " are commonly used as con- 
junctions, yet are sometimes used as relative pronouns, as in the 
following sentences : 

You must take such as we have. 
Our books are the same as yours. 
There was no man but would have gone. 

The expressions '' each other," '^ every other," '^ no other," 
^^ one another," may be parsed as compound indefinite pronouns. 
Thus in the sentence '^ They did not speak to each other," '^ each 
other " may be regarded as the object of ''to," though strictly 
'' each " is in apposition with 'Vthey " and '' other " is the object of 
'' to." The sentence expanded would be '' They each did not speak 
to the other." 

The compounds of '' one," as '' any one," '' some one," etc., may 
also be parsed as single words. Thus in the sentence '' I saw some 
one in the room," '' some one " may be regarded as an indefinite 
pronoun in the objective case, object of '' saw." 



APPENDIX 223 

3. Adjectives. Words may be used as adjectives which are com- 
monly used as nouns, adverbs, and prepositions ; as, for example, 

I have a gold watch. 

He will come on the dowii train. 

You may remember this in after years. 

4. Verbs. Words that are commonly used as nouns and adjec- 
tives are sometimes used as verbs with little or no change of 
form ; as, 

How did you word that letter .^ 
Will you please black my shoes .^ 

5. Adverbs. Words that are commonly used as nouns, adjec- 
tives, and prepositions may be used as adverbs ; as, 

I am going home. 

Do not speak so loud. 

He passed by without speaking. 

6. The use of the same word in different relations is illustrated 
further by the following examples : 



1. Above ^ 



[a. Noun: He comes from above. 

b. Adjective : They live in the room above. 

c. Adverb : You may go above. 

^d. Preposition: She went above him. 



(a. Adjective : His cabin is in the after part of the ship. 
2. After ^ b. Adverb : He started soon after for home. 
[^ c. Preposition : He went after water. 



3. All 



a. Noun : She gave her all to charity. 

b. Indefinite pronoun : All of them are in school. 

c. Adjective : He was kind at all times. 

d. Adverb : It is all right for you to do this. 

r a. Pronoun : Any of them can do this. 
4. Any ^ b. Adjective : Any one may answer who knows. 
1^ c. Adverb : He is not any worse to-day. 



224 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



5. As 



6. Before ^ 



b. 
c. 

{a. 



7. But 



(a. 



(a. 
8. Enough^ b. 

[c. 

(a. 

b. 

c. 
\^d, 

h- 

I 
L 



9. Fast 



10. Full 



11. Hard 



12. Like 



13. Little 



14. More 



u. 

a. 
b. 
c. 
d. 

^t 

< b. 

1 ■ 



Relative pronoun ; used frequently after " such," 
" many," and '' same " : I respect such as respect 
themselves. 

Adverb : He could not so much as move his head. 

Subordinate conjunction : I saw him as he went by. 

Part of a conjunctive phrase : He walks as if he were old. 

Adverb : I have been here before. 
Preposition : Do not go before them. 

Relative pronoun : There is not a man but (that not) 

knows it. 
Adverb : He is but (only, merely) a child. 
Preposition : They all went but (except) him. 
Conjunction (coordinate): He is poor but honest; 

(subordinate) Who knows but (that not) he would do it? 

Noun : I have enough for all. 
Adjective : There are men enough here. 
Adverb : He is old enough to know better. 

Noun : The fast continued two days. 
Adjective : He proved to be a fast friend of mine. 
Verb : They fast once every week. 
Adverb : The horse ran very fast. 

Adjective : The pail was full. 
Adverb : Full well you know the story. 
(Also used as noun and verb. See dictionary.) 

Adjective : The task is a hard one. 
Adverb : He worked hard all day. 

Noun : I shall not look upon his like again. 
Adjective : They are working under like conditions. 
Verb : Children like to imitate others. 
Preposition : It sounds like a thrush. 

Noun : I have a little. 
Adjective: I have a Uttle piece. 
Adverb : It matters very little. 

Noun : I do not wish any more. 
Adjective : Shall you buy more coal ? 
Adverb : He will come no more. 



APPENDIX 



225 



15. Near 


'a. 

c. 




.d. 




(a. 


16. Needs 


\b. 



17. Only 



18. So 



19. That 



20. The 



21. What 



22. While < 



{a. 

U 

fa. 

^. 

fa. 
I b. 

c. 

d. 
fa. 

I 
L 

fa. 
I ^' 
I d. 

fa. 
b. 



Adjective : He is a very near friend. 

Adverb : Please remain near by. 

Verb : The ships near the land. 

Preposition : They are near me. 

Noun : Their needs were supplied. 

Verb : He needs me to take care of him. 

Adverb : He must needs go away. 

Adjective : It was the only one left. 

Adverb : I do not sing ; I only play. 

Adverb : I am so glad you came. 

Conjunction : So we go slowly it does not matter. 

Interjection : So ! so, boss ! so ! so ! 

Relative pronoun : This is the book that you lost. 

Demonstrative pronoun : This is better than that. 

Pronominal adjective : That book is mine. 

Conjunction : I think that I shall go. 

Article : The boy has gone. 

Adverb : The more the better say I. (Some gramma- 
rians call " the " in such a sentence as this an adjective.) 
Relative pronoun : I do not know what he wants. 
Interrogative pronoun : What do you wish ? 
Adjective : What book do you want ? 
Adverb : What fine weather we are having ! 
Interjection : What ! Are you going already 1 

Noun : It is n't worth while. 
Verb : I shall while away the time. 
Conjunctive adverb : I shall remain while the weather 
is pleasant. 



II 



CASE RELATIONS AND FORMS 



Case has been defined as ^' that form or use of a noun or pronoun 
by which its relation to other words in a sentence is known" (96). 

If modern EngHsh were an inflected language, as Old English 
was and as some foreign languages are at the present time, the 



226 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



definition of case might be made to refer to the form only of a 
noun or pronoun. This indeed is the idea expressed by many 
grammarians in their definitions. But such a definition as applied 
to nouns would permit the use of but one case, or at most two 
cases, since there is but one modification of the simple form of 
nouns to express relation. 

Most pronouns, however, change their form to denote relations, 
and therefore by the test of form only they would have three dis- 
tinct cases. In view of these inflectional changes of pronouns, and 
in view also of the possible help which a knowledge of grammatical 
relations gives in learning a new language, it is thought best to base 
the idea of case upon the uses as well as upon the forms of nouns 
and pronouns. It seems advisable, however, to limit the number 
of cases to three, rather than to make the number correspond to 
the number of relations which nouns and pronouns have in the 
sentence. Since the relations of nouns and pronouns are a dozen 
or more, it is manifest that one or more of the cases will be made 
to denote several relations. The more important case relations of 
substantives are shown in the following outline : 



1. The subject of a sentence (33-40, 70) 

2. A subjective complement (45, 70) 

3. An independent element (absolute) (App. Ill) 

4. A term of address or exclamation (App. Ill) 

5. A modifier indicating possession or kind (74) 

6. The direct object of a verb (42, 72) 

7. The indirect object of a verb (43, 72) 

8. An objective complement (App. V) 

9. The object of a preposition (27, 72) 

10. The subject of an infinitive (App. IV) 

11. An expression of measure or time (App. VI) 



12. An appositive (76, 77) 



Nominative 
Case 

r Possessive 






Case 



Objective 
Case 



'Case is the 
same as the 
limited noun 
or pro7ioun 



APPENDIX 227 

The relations given above which have not been fully explained 
in the sections indicated will be considered in separate parts of the 
Appendix. 

Ill 

NOMINATIVE INDEPENDENT 

1. By Address {Vocative). In such sentences as '^ Charles, come 
here," *' Drink, prett}^ creature, drink," ^^ Charles " and "' creature " 
are said to be in the Nominative Case by Address. Nouns so used 
are sometimes referred to as being in the Vocative Case. 

The following sentences illustrate this use of the noun or 
pronoun : 

1. The fault, dear Brutus, is not with our stars. 

2. I will avenge this insult, noble queoi. 

3. O tJioic that hearest prayer, unto thee shall all flesh come. 

4. Blessings on thee, little 7)ian, 
Barefoot boy, with cheek of tan ! 

2. By Exda7?iatio?i. In the sentences '' The Pilgrim Fathers ! 
wdiere are they .^ " '' O unhappy I ! whither shall I flee ? " 
^^ Fathers " and ^^ I '' are used in an exclamatory way and are 
therefore in the Nominative Case by Exclamation. This use of 
nouns and pronouns is further shown as follows : 

1. Alas, poor Vo?ick ' I knew him, Horatio. 

2. A horse ! A horse I My kingdom for a horse ! 

3. Give ear, ye heavens, and I will speak. 

4. My cou7itry I 't is of thee, 
Sweet land of liberty, 

Of thee I sing. 

In the sentence '' Ah 7Jie ! what can I do now ? *' there is an ap- 
parent exception to the rule that pronouns used in exclamation 
must be in the nominative case. This use of the pronoun in the 
objective case may be explained by regarding the expression " Ah 



2 28 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

me ! " as an elliptical sentence, '^ me " being the object of some verb 
(as '' pity ") understood. 

3. Absolute. The case of a noun or pronoun in a group of 
words somewhat independent of the rest of the sentence, but not 
by address or exclamation, is called Nominative Absolute, as in the 
following sentences : 

1. The hour being late, we retired. 

2. The storm having abated, we went on our way. 

3. The building having been finished, the workmen went home. 

4. Next Anger rushed, his eyes on fire. 

5. He left my side, 

A summer bloom on his fair cheek, a S7nile 
Parting his innocent lips. 

It will be observed that in the first three sentences and in the 
last group of words some form of the participle is used with the 
noun. In the other examples the participle may be regarded as 
understood, thus '' his eyes (being) on fire," " A summer bloom 
(being) on his fair cheek." 

IV 

THE SUBJECT OF AN INFINITIVE 

In the sentence '^ I believe him to be truthful," the object of the 
verb is ^^ him to be truthful," being equivalent to '^ that he is truth- 
ful." The pronoun '' him " is in the objective case because it is 
the subject of the infinitive ^' to be." The same construction is 
shown in the following sentences : 

1. I saw him go. 

2. They declared him to be insane. 

3. They ordered us to leave at once. 

4. He forbade them to remain longer. 

Care should be taken to distinguish between the uses of the pro- 
noun in such sentences as ^^ I saw him go" and '^ I told him to go." 



APPENDIX 229 

^^ Him " in the first sentence is the subject of the infinitive '' go," 

(because the two words taken together is the object of the verb 
" saw." In the second sentence ''to go " is the direct object of 

V 

OBJECTIVE COMPLEMENT 

The sentence '' They called the boy clever " means the same as 
'' They called clever the boy." In both cases '' called clever " must 
be considered as the simple predicate; for neither ''called" nor 
" clever " can be used alone as the predicate. " Clever " is the 
completing part of the predicate, and is therefore called a comple- 
ment. It is an adjective and belongs to " boy " ; and because " boy " 
is used in an objective relation (object of "called"), its attribute 
" clever " is said to be an Objective Complement. 

In the sentence " They made Mr. Harrison President," " made 
President'' is the simple predicate, " ]\Ir. Harrison " being the direct 
object of " made" and "President" the objective complement. 

The use of the objective complement appears in the following 
outline : 
Subject Complete Predicate 



Simple Predicate Object 

verb objective complement 
They called clever (the) boy. 

(The) people made President Mr. Harrison. 

Point out the objects and objective complements in the following 
sentences, arranging as many of the sentences as you can in an 
outline, as given above : 

1. They called the boy John. 

2. They dyed the gloves black. 

3. She ironed the cloth smooth. 

4. His illness made him weak. 



230 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

5. They have chosen me captain. 

6. The maid wrung the clothes dry. 

7. He made his sister very unhappy. 

8. We have appointed him our agent. 

9. Do you think him very wealthy ? 

VI 

ADVERBIAL OBJECTIVES 

He went away last 7iight. 

The room is \ki\xty feet long. 

You might have come two hotirs sooner. 

In the above sentences observe that the nouns ^' night," ^^ feet," 
and '' hours " have some properties of an adverb, inasmuch as they 
express measure either of distance or time and modify respectively 
a verb, an adjective, and an adverb. From this fact and from the 
fact that such nouns, formerly in English and at present in some 
foreign languages, are put in an objective form, they are said to be 
Adverbial Objectives. The following sentences further illustrate 
this use of nouns : 

1. I have been in Europe three times. 

2. This box is two feet longer than that. 

3. His horse came full speed towards us. 

4. They watched by his bedside all 7tight long. 

5. It will be all the same a hwndvtd years hence. 

VII 

APPOSITIVES 

I. Pronouns (80), like nouns, are sometimes used to limit nouns 
and pronouns and are by apposition in the same case, as shoMrn 
in the following sentences : 

We were boys together, you and I. 

He came to see us off, Henry, William, and me. 

Please ask Master Brown to come to the desk, him who came in late. 



APPENDIX 231 

2. When two possessives are in apposition they may both have 
the sign of possession, as shown in 77, or the possessive ending may 
be added to the appositive only ; as 

He called at the Secretary of State, Mr. Hay's office. 

VIII 

COMPLEMENTS OF PASSIVE VERBS AND INFINITIVES 

1. In addition to the common use of the subjective complement, 
explained in 45, there is its use following a verb in the passive 
voice, as in the sentences 

They are called Indians. 
He was accounted wise. 

Here ^^ Indians " is in the nominative case, and ^^ wise " belongs to 
the subject ''he," both being subjective complements. 
The following sentences illustrate this construction : 

1. Grant was made general of the army. 

2. John Hay was appointed secretary of state. 

3. William Henry Harrison was elected President. 

4. He was thought honest by the directors. 

2. Note that the subjective complements in the above sentences 
are the objective complements of the active verbs, as 

W^e called them Indians. 
We account him wise. 

In the same way change the other sentences. 

3. In general the copulative verbs '' be,'' '' become,'' '' seems," 
etc., take the same case after them as before them when the sub- 
stantives mean the same persons or things. In the sentence '' We 
wanted him to become our leader," '' to become " is a copulative 
verb followed by ^' leader," which is in the objective case, agreeing 
with " him," the subject of the infinitive (App. IV). 



2 32 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

There is the same construction in the following sentences : 

I knew it to be him. 

We supposed it to be them. 

I did not believe it to be her. 

IX 

FORMS DENOTING POSSESSION AND KIND 

1. Exceptions to rules for the formation of possessives (74). 

a. Some singular nouns ending in '^ s," contrary to the rule, add 
only the apostrophe to the singular to form the possessive, such as 
are shown in the following examples : 

He fell down at Jesus' feet. 

They obeyed Moses' laws to the letter. 

Sophocles' tragedies were acted in Athens. 

The awkward or improper pronunciation of these possessives 
would be avoided by the use of limiting phrases, as '^The tragedies 
of Sophocles," etc. 

b. The possessive of nouns ending in '^ ss '' and '^ nee " is gen- 
erally formed by the addition of the apostrophe only, as 

For goodness' sake let him go. 

They came to America for conscience' sake. 

2. Restricted nse of the inflected possessive. In most instances two 
forms of possession are correct, the inflected form and the phrase 
form. Thus we may say, " the feet of the horse " or '' the horse's 
feet," ^^ Nature's laws," or '^ the laws of Nature." But sometimes 
the phrase form is to be preferred, as '^ the width of the house," not 
^^ the house's width." There is no rule which can be called an abso- 
lute guide in the use of these forms, but generally the inflected 
possessive is to be preferred when actual or imagined possession is 
denoted. We should say, for example, '' Mr. Smith's boys " rather 
than " the boys of Mr. Smith," and '' the boys of New York " 
rather than ^^ New York's boys." It should be said that the phrasal 



APPENDIX 



233 



and possessive forms do not necessarily mean the same thing. The 
words '' Mr. Smith's picture " is likely to mean a picture belonging 
to Mr. Smith, while ''the picture of Mr. Smith" means his portrait. 
Other reasons might be given for the choice of the phrasal form 
in expressing kind, such as considerations of euphony. For ex- 
ample, we should say, ''the orations of Demosthenes" and ''the 
tragedies of Euripides " rather than '^ Demosthenes' orations " 
and '^ Euripides' tragedies." 

3. The possessive fonn preceded by ^'^of^ The possessive form 
of nouns or pronouns preceded by '' of," as '' that picture of 
Brown's," '' this book of mine," may be regarded as a peculiar 
idiom which originated from a mixture and confusion of a pure 
possessive and an adjective phrase. 

There appears to be a difference of opinion among grammarians 
as to the function of the possessive in such a phrase. Some are 
inclined to regard the phrase '^ of Brown's " simply as a noun phrase 
used like an appositive adjective limiting '* picture " without attempt- 
ing to parse the possessive '' Brown's." Others regard the entire 
expression '^ that picture of Brown's "as an abbreviated form of 
'^ that picture (one) of Brown's pictures," thus making '^ Brown's " 
a possessive limiting '' pictures " understood and '' of " governing 
'^ pictures." 

Whatever the difficulty of parsing the words of this idiom, its 
continued use may be defended on the ground that its meaning is 
sometimes different from that of the adjective phrase without the 
possessive noun or pronoun. Thus '' that picture of Brown's " 
clearly refers to a picture which he owns or has painted, whereas 
'' that picture of Brown " as clearly refers to his portrait. 

4. The possessive forms '^'^ miiie,'^ '^'^ thiiie,^' etc. 

a. The possessive forms '' mine," '' thine," '' his," '' hers," 
^^ ours," '^ yours," '^ theirs," are generally used as adjective pro- 
nouns, being substitutes for a noun and its possessive modifier. 
Thus "This hat is ??ii7ie^^ is equivalent to '^ This is 7ny hat'^ 
" Yours is on the table " means ^^ your hat is on the table." 



2 34 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Therefore, though possessive in form, these words thus used have 
really the relation of subject, object, or subjective complement, and 
should be parsed as such. The following sentences illustrate their 
use in these various relations : 

1. Your book is old; mine is new. 

2. The country is theirs as well as ours. 

3. He has my hat ; I have his. 

4. My paper has given out ; may I have some of yours ? 

h. The idiom ^^ of mine," in such expressions as '^ this pen of 
mine," is variously regarded by grammarians. Some explain it by 
supplying an ellipsis, as ''this pen of my pens"; some consider 
'' mine " in such a construction as an adjective pronoun, the object 
of '' of " ; and some regard the phrase '' of mine " as equivalent to 
" belonging to me," and therefore a possessive phrase. 

c. In earlier English and in poetry the forms '' mine " and 
'' thine " are used instead of '^ my " and ''thy," particularly before 
nouns beginning with a vowel, as 

Shall I not take mine ease ? 
Look then into thine heart. 
Mine eyes have seen the glory of the coming of the Lord. 



X 



THE USE OF ^' SHALL," ^' WILL," ^^ SHOULD," AND 
'^ WOULD" 

I. In the ordinary use of the words " shall," " will," " should," 
and " would," two rules will be helpful : 

a. To denote simple futurity " shall " is used in the first person 
and " will " in the second and third, as 

I (we) shall go to-morrow. 

You (he, they) will go to-morrow. 



APPENDIX 235 

b. To denote a promise or determination of the person speaking 
'' will " is used in the first person and '' shall " in the second and 
third, as 

1. I will go if you want me to [assent or promise]. 

2. We will go to-morrow [determination]. 

3. You (he) shall have the book by to-morrow [promise]. 

4. You (he) shall go to-morrow [determination]. 

2. In questions ''shall" or ''will" is used according to the 
reply expected. Thus, to ask of a friend about some future plan, 
one may say, " Shall you go away this summer .^ " " Shall " is used 
because the answer expected is " I shall " (or " shall not "). If 
" will " is expected in the answer, the question may be, " Will your 
friend go with you ? " or " Will you come to see me to-morrow ? " 
In questions of the first person, however, " shall " should be used 
even though " will " is expected in the answer, as " Shall we go 
too ? " 

3..^. In subordinate clauses introduced by "that," the auxil- 
iaries '^ shall " and " will " are used as in independent sentences, 
provided the subject of the dependent clause represents a different 
person or thing from that of the principal clause, as 

John says that his brother will remain. 
He thinks that we shall not stay long. 

b. In all other dependent clauses " shall " is used in all persons 
to express simple futurity and " will '' to express a promise or 
determination, as 

1. May says that she shall be there three weeks longer. 

2. She says that she will return just as soon as she can. 

3. We have promised him that we will do better in future. 

4. If they will lay down their arms within ten days we will forgive them. 

In each of the first three sentences above the subjects of the 
dependent and principal clauses denote the same person or persons. 



> even if it rained. 



236 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

4. The rules for the use of '' shall " and '' will '' apply generally 
to '' should " and '' would/' as is shown in the following sentences : 

1. I (we) should go [futurity] ^ 

2. You would go [futurity] 

3. He (they) would go [futurity] 

4. I (we) would go [futurity] 

5. You should go [authority] 

6. He (they) should go [authority] 

7. Where shoicld I go if I had no home? 

8. Where would you go if you had no home ? 

9. Where would he go if he had no home ? 

'' Should " is sometimes used in the sense of '' ought " in all 
persons, as 

He should be more considerate of others. 
I should have done the work better. 

" Should " is often used to soften what otherwise would be an 
abrupt and emphatic assertion, as 

I shoitld advise you to be more careful. 
^^ Would " sometimes expresses a habit, wish, or determination, as 

He would sometimes talk to himself. 

Would that he were with us. 

He would play truant, although he knew he should be punished for it. 

XI 

TENSES 

I. Te7ise for7ns and mea7ii7igs. There are many instances in 
which the tense of verbs is known only from their meaning or from 
their use in sentences. This is true of verbs whose present and 
past forms are the same, as '' beat,'' ''cast," ''cost," "cut," and 
many others. It is also true of some verbs expressing a wish 
and of some verbs in conditional sentences and clauses, as in the 
following sentences : 



APPENDIX 237 

1. Thy kingdom come [future]. 

2. We are going [future] next week. 

3. We leave [future] to-morrow morning. 

4. I wish I were [present] a bird. 

5. If he goes [future] to-morrow I shall go. 

6. Were [present] he here, we would [present] read together. 

7. Should [future] it rain to-morrow, I could [future] not go. 

2. Sequence of te?tses. The tense of infinitives and of verbs in 
dependent clauses must be such as is required by the tense of the 
principal verb. For example, it is correct to say, '^ I was glad to 
have seen him," if the seeing preceded the feeling of gladness ; 
but if, as is more Hkely, the speaker intended to say that the glad 
feeling was at the time of the seeing, the sentence is incorrect and 
should be '^ I was glad to see him." 

Similarly, we should say, '^We intended to go" (not ''to have 
gone "). 

'' I should like to meet him " or ''I should have liked to meet 
him " (not '' to have met him "). 

The sentence '' I hoped that I could have gone " is incorrect 
because the time expressed by '' could have gone " is earlier than 
that expressed by '' hoped," which is manifestly impossible. The 
following sentences illustrate the correct use of tenses in sub- 
ordinate clauses : 

1. He says that he is coming to-day. 

2. He says that he will come to-morrow. 

3. He will say that he is coming to-day. 

4. He will say that he will come to-morrow. 

5. He speaks distinctly so that he may be understood. 

6. He has spoken distinctly so that he may be understood. 

7. He will speak distinctly so that he may be understood. 

8. He spoke distinctly so that he might be understood. 

9. You could speak distinctly if you desired to do so. 

10. He said that he had finished the work. 

11. He had said that he would do the work. 

12. If I had had time I would have gone. 



238 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

From the above examples the following general rule may be 
made for the use of verbs in subordinate clauses : 

a. Present, present perfect, and future tenses in the principal 
clause are followed by the present, present perfect, and future in- 
dicative, and present subjunctive in the subordinate clause. 

b. Past and past perfect tenses in the principal clause are fol- 
lowed by the past and past perfect tenses in the subordinate clause. 

An apparent exception to the rule occurs in those sentences 
in which what is customary or what is always true is expressed in 
the subordinate clause, as " He said that the earth is round." In 
these sentences verbs in the present tense are used to follow those 
in the past. 

XII 

ADVERBS 

1 . Adverbial and adjective relations. By following the rule for the 
use of adjectives after certain verbs (45, 142) errors are likely to be 
avoided ; but sometimes it is difficult to distinguish the adjective 
and adverbial uses of words, as, for example, in the sentence '' He 
looks well." Some would say that the word ''well" is used here 
as an adjective if it is a matter of health and as an adverb if it is a 
matter of good looks. Other words having all the appearance of 
adverbs but having the force and value of predicate adjectives are 
found in such sentences as 

1. The sun is down. 

2. The moon is up. 

3. The stars are out. 

4. I was //^r^, but you were away. 

2. Modal adverbs and 7'esponsives. Adverbs are sometimes used 
to show how the thought is regarded by the speaker, as " probably " 
in the sentence '' He will probably be elected." A word so used is 
called a Modal Adverb. Other modal adverbs are 

accordingly certainly indeed noways possibly therefore 

consequently hence not perhaps surely wherefore 



APPENDIX 239 

" No " and '' yes " are by some grammarians regarded as modal 
adverbs. They seem to stand for whole sentences and therefore 
may be called Respoiisives. 

3. Position of the adverb. An adverb should be placed in the 
sentence as near as possible to the word it modifies. The same is 
true of an adverbial phrase or clause. 

This rule is frequently violated, especially in the use of 

only solely scarcely ever never 

not ever at any rate at least 

Note the meaning of '"' only "' in the following sentences : 

I only bought two yards. (^Modifying ''I'* or ''bought.'') 

I bought only two yards. (^Modifying ''two."*j 

Observe the position and use of the italicized words in the fol- 
lowing sentences : 

1. I never thought he would go. 

2. I thought he would never go. 

3. He was not angr}^ because he was punished. 

4. He was angry not because he was punished. 

5. I rever remember to have had a better time. 

6. I cannot remember to have ever had a better time. 

XIII 

PREPOSITIONS 

I. The object of a preposition may be a noun or pronoun or any 
word or gi'oup of words used as a noun. Thus the object may be 

a. An adjective or adverb used as a noun, as 

He went from bad to iuo?'se. 
Until then he behaved himself. 

b. A phrase, as 

The mouse came from under the bureau. 

c. A clause, as 

From i.vJiat I sav.'. I judged that it was not a fit place for children. 



240 ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

The italicized expressions above should be parsed as substantives 
in the objective case. 

2. Note the peculiar use of the prepositions in the following 
expressions : -^ 

Agree to (a proposal) : They agree to the proposition. 
Agree with (a person) : Agree with thine adversary quickly. 
Compare to (likeness) : We may compare the life of a man to a river. 
Co7npare with (relative value) : Compare Lincoln with Washington. 
Consist in (nature) : His power consists in a certain reserve. 
Consist ^ (parts): The plant consists of root, stem, and leaves. 
Differ from J not '' to " 1 He differs from his brother. 
Different from i^or '' than " j He is different from his brother. 
Differ with (in reference to opinions) : He differs with me always. 
Taste for (art) : She has no taste for music. 
Taste ofiioodi) : Please taste of this bread. 
Wait for (await) : We will gladly wait for you. 
Wait on (attend on) : The girl waited on the table. 



XIV 

ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES 

The omission of some part of a sentence is allowable whenever 
such omission does not obscure the sense. In all such cases a 
knowledge of the grammatical construction of the shortened sen- 
tence imphes that the word or words omitted are understood. 
Pupils should be given practice in supplying the omitted parts. 

The following omissions occur both in literature and in common 
speech : 

1. The subject of a sentence or clause, as 

[Thou or you] close the door. 'T is that [which] gives me courage. 

2. The predicate of a sentence or clause, as 
Why [is] this hesitation ? He is taller than I [am tall]. 

1 For the use of other prepositions sometimes misused, see 147. 



APPENDIX 



241 



3. The object of a verb or preposition, as 

The work [which] he did was poor. 

You have my book and I have my brother's [book]. 

4. The antecedent of a relative pronoun, as 

[He] who steals my purse, steals trash. 

5. An infinitive, as 

I am afraid that I cannot do it, but I will try [to do it]. 

6. A participle used with the nominative absolute, as 

His family and friends [being] around him, he was very happy. 

7. A preposition, as 

He departed [from] this life last year. 

8. A subordinate conjunction, as 

He says [that] he will come to-morrow. 

9. A phrase, as 

That is the way [by which] you should go. 

10. Both subject and predicate of a clause, as 
While [he was] here, he did well. 

XV 

DECLENSION OF NOUNS AND PRONOUNS 



Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


No7ni7iative boy 


boys 


woman 


women 


Possessive boy's 


boys' 


woman's 


women's 


Objective boy 


boys 


woman 


women 


Singular 


Plural 


Singular 


Plural 


A'07ni7iative I 


we 


thou, you 


ye. you 


Possessive ^ . m 
(^ (mine) ^ 

Objective me 


four 
l^ (ours) ^ 
us 


r thy r your 
1 (thine) i| (yours) 1 
thee, you 


ryour 
^ (yours) 1 
ye, you 



1 For an explanation of this form, see App. IX, 4. 



242 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 





Singular 






Plural 




MASC. 


FEM. 


NEUT. 




ALL genders 


Nojninative 


he 


she 


it 




they 


Possessive 


his 


r her 
L(hers 


its 




r their 
\ (theirs) 1 


Objective 


him 


her 


it 




them 




Singular and 


Plural Forms the Same 


No7ni7iative 


who 


which 


that 


what 


Possessive 


whose 


(whose) 






Objective 


whom 


which 


that 


what 




Singular 




Singular 




Plural 


N^07ninative 


one 




other 




others 


Possessive 


one's 




other's 




others' 


Objective 


one 




other 




others 



XVI 

LIST OF IRREGULAR VERBS 

This hst comprises those verbs whose forms for the past tense 
or past participle are preferably irregular. That is, it does not con- 
tain any verb whose p7'efe7^red forms for the past and past participle 
are regular. A star following any word indicates that the regular 
form is allowed, although not preferred. The dictionary should be 
consulted in doubtful cases. 



Pres. 


Past 


Past Part. 


Pres. 


Past 


Past Part. 


abide 


abode 


abode 


begin 


began 


begun 


am (be) 


was 


been 


behold 


beheld 


beheld 


arise 


arose 


arisen 


bend 


bent 


bent 


awake 


awoke * 


awaked 


beseech 


besought 


besought 


bear bore 

(to bring forth) 

bear bore 

(to carry) 

beat beat 


born 

borne 

beaten 


bet 
bid 
bind 


bet* 
rbade 
ibid 

bound 


bet* 
bidden 
bid 
bound 



1 For an explanation of this form, see App. IX, 4. 



I 







APPENDIX 




243 


Pres. 


Past 


Past Part. 


Pres. 


Past 


Past Part. 


bite 

bleed 


bit 
bled 


fbitten 
ibit 
bled 


fly 
forget 


flew 
forgot 


flown 
r forgotten 
(^forgot 


blow 


blew 


blown 


forsake 


forsook 


forsaken 


break 


broke 


broken 


freeze 


froze 


frozen 


breed 
bring 


bred 
brought 


bred 
brought 


get 


got 


|got 
(^gotten 


build 


built * 


built * 


gird 


girt* 


girt* 


burst 


burst 


burst 


give 


gave 


given 


buy 


bought 


bought 


go 


went 


gone 


cast 


cast 


cast 


grind 


ground 


ground 


catch 


caught 


caught 


grow 


grew 


grown 


chide 


chid 


fchidden 
Lchid 


hang 
have 


hung* 
had 


hung * 
had 


choose 


chose 


chosen 


hear 


heard 


heard 


cleave 


fcleft 
^clove 


cleft * 


hide 


hid 


r hidden 
ihid 


(to split) 


cloven 






cling 


clung 


clung 


hit 


hit 


hit 


come 


came 


come 


hold 


held 


held 


cost 


cost 


cost 


hurt 


hurt 


hurt 


creep 


crept 


crept 


keep 


kept 


kept 


cut 


cut 


cut 


kneel 


knelt * 


knelt * 


deal 


dealt 


dealt 


know 


knew 


known 


dig 


dug * 


dug* 


lay 


laid 


laid 


do 


did 


done 


lead 


led 


led 


draw 


drew 


drawn 


leave 


left 


left 


drink 


drank 


drunk 


lend 


lent 


lent 


drive 


drove 


driven 


let 


let 


let 


dwell 


dwelt * 


dwelt * 


lie 


lay 


lain 


eat 


ate 


eaten 


(to recline 


) 




fall 


fell 


fallen 


lose 


lost 


lost 


feed 


fed 


fed 


make 


made 


made 


feel 


felt 


felt 


mean 


meant 


meant 


fight 


fought 


fought 


meet 


met 


met 


find 


found 


found 


pay 


paid 


paid 


flee 


fled 


fled 


put 


put 


put 


fling 


fiung 


flung 


quit 


quit* 


quit* 



244 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Pres. 


Past 


Past Part. 


Pres. 


Past 


Past Part. 


read 


read 


read 


spin 


spun 


spun 


rend 
rid 


rent 
rid 


rent 
rid 


spit 


|spit 
l^spat 


spit 


ride 


rode 


ridden 


split 


split 


split 


ring 


rang 


rung 


spread 


spread 


spread 


rise 


rose 


risen 


spring 


sprang 


sprung 


run 


ran 


run 


stand 


stood 


stood 


say 


said 


said 


steal 


stole 


stolen 


see 


saw 


seen 


stick 


stuck 


stuck 


seek 


sought 


sought 


sting 


stung 


stung 


sell 


sold 


sold 


stride 


strode 


stridden 


send 
set 


sent 
set 


sent 
set 


strike 


struck 


r struck 
'^stricken 


shake 


shook 


shaken 


string 


strung 


strung 


shed 


shed 


shed 


strive 


strove 


striven 


shine 


shone 


shone 


swear 


swore 


sworn 


shoe 


shod 


shod 


sweat 


sweat * 


sweat * 


shoot 


shot 


shot 


sweep 


swept 


swept 


show 
shrink 


showed 
r shrank 
^.shrunk 


shown * 
r shrunk 
i^ shrunken 


swim 
swing 


fswam 
t^swum 
swung 


swum 
swung 


shut 


shut 


shut 


take 


took 


taken 


sing 


fsang 
Lsung 


sung 


teach 
tear 


taught 
tore 


taught 
torn 


sink 


fsank 
l^sunk 


fsunk 
(^sunken 


tell 


told 


told 


think 


thought 


thought 


sit 


sat 


sat 


thrive 


throve * 


thriven * 


slay 


slew 


slain 


throw 


threw 


thrown 


sleep 


slept 


slept 


thrust 


thrust 


thrust 


slide 


slid 


fslid 
l^slidden 


tread 


trod 


ftrod 
l, trodden 


sling 


slung 


slung 


wear 


wore 


worn 


slink 


slunk 


slunk 


weave 


wove 


woven 


slit 


slit* 


slit* 


weep 


wept 


wept 


smite 


smote 


smitten 


win 


won 


won 


speak 


spoke 


spoken 


wind 


wound 


wound 


speed 


sped 


sped 


wring 


wrung 


wrung 


spend 


spent 


spent 


write 


wrote 


written 



APPENDIX 245 



Present 
beware 
can 
may 
must 


DEFECTIVE 
Past 


VERBS 
Present 
ought 
shall 
will 


Past 


could 

might 


should 
would 
quoth 



XVII 

CONJUGATIONS 
I. The Verb '' Be " 

INDICATIVE MODE 



Present Tense Past Tense 


singular 


plural singular plural 


I am 


We are I was We were 


You are 1 
(Thou art) J 


,, You were 1 ^, 
1 ou are ^, . ^ \ ou were 
(Thou wast ) J 


He is 


They are He was They were 




Present Perfect Tense 


singular 


PLURAL 


I have been 


We have been 


You have beer 


L (^Thou hast been) You have been 


He has been 


They have been 




Past Perfect Tense 


SINGULAR 


PLURAL 


I had been 


We had been 


You had been 


(Thou hadst been) You had been 


He had been 


They had been 




Future Tense 


SINGULAR plural 



I shall be (or will be) We shall be (or will be) 

You will be lor shall be) 1 ^, ^^^ ^ ^ m ^ . 

\ 1, i/u ^ 1^ ^ou Will be (or shall be) 

Thou \\alt be) (or shalt be) j 

He will be (or shall be) They will be (or shall be) 



246 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 

Future Perfect Tense 
singular 

I shall have been (or will have been) 
fYou will have been (or shall have been) 
i. Thou wilt have been (or shalt have been) 

He will have been (or shall have been) 

PLURAL 

We shall have been (or will have been) 
You will have been (or shall have been) 
They will have been (or shall have been) 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 
(Often preceded by ^^ if," ^^ unless," " though," etc.) 



Present Tense 

SING. PLUR. 



I be 

You be 1 



We be 



r^, . . y You be 
(Thou be) j 

He be They be 



Past Tense 
sing. plur. 



I were We were 

You were 1 
(Thou wert). 
He were They were 



y You were 

)j 



Present Perfect Tense 
sing. plur. 



Past Perfect Tense 
sing. plur. 



I have been 



We have been I had been 



We had been 



You have been 1 ,, , , You had been ^ ^^ , , , 

^, , , !>You have been ^, , ^ n . ;>You had been 

(Thou have been)j (Ihou had been) J 

He have been They have been He had been They had been 



IMPERATIVE MODE 
Present, Singular and Plural 
Be 





APPENDIX 






PARTICIPLES 




Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Being 


Been 


Having been 



247 



INFINITIVES 

Root Infinitives 
present perfect 

[To] be [To] have been 

Participial Infinitives 
Being Having been 



Present Tense 

ACTIVE voice passive VOICE 



II. The Verb ^^ See " 

INDICATIVE MODE 

Present Perfect Tense 



I see 
You see 
(Thou) (seest) 
He sees 
We see 
You see 
They see 



am seen 
are seen 

(art seen) 
is seen 
are seen 
are seen 
are seen 



Past Tense 

active voice passive VOICE 



I saw 
You saw 
(Thou sawest) 
He saw 
We saw 
You saw 
They saw 



was seen 
were seen 
(wast seen) 
was seen 
were seen 
were seen 
were seen 



ACTIVE VOICE 

have seen 
have seen 
(hast seen) 
has seen 
have seen 
have seen 
have seen 



PASSIVE VOICE 

have been seen 
have been seen 
(hast been seen) 
has been seen 
have been seen 
have been seen 
have been seen 



Past Perfect Tense 



ACTIVE VOICE 

had seen 
had seen 
(hadst seen) 
had seen 
had seen 
had seen 
had seen 



PASSIVE VOICE 

had been seen 
had been seen 
(hadst been seen) 
had been seen 
had been seen 
had been seen 
had been seen 



248 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Future Tense 



Future Perfect Tense 



ACTIVE VOICE 

I shall see 
You will see 
(Thou) (wilt see) 
He will see 
We shall see 
You will see 
They will see 



PASSIVE VOICE 

shall be seen 
will be seen 
(wilt be seen) 
will be seen 
shall be seen 
will be seen 
will be seen 



ACTIVE VOICE 

shall have seen 
will have seen 
(wilt have seen) 
will have seen 
shall have seen 
will have seen 
will have seen 



PASSIVE VOICE 

shall have been seen 
will have been seen 
(wilt have been seen) 
will have been seen 
shall have been seen 
will have been seen 
will have been seen 



SUBJUNCTIVE MODE 



Present Tense 
active voice passive voice 



I, you ^^ 
(thou), he j 
We, you, "I 

they 



ACTIVE VOICE 

I, you, 1 
' ^ ' 5-saw 
he J 

(thou saw) 



Present Perfect Tense 

ACTIVE voice passive VOICE 

be seen have seen have been seen 

be seen have seen have been seen 

Past Tense Past Perfect Tense 

passive voice active voice passive voice 



)>see 



)>see 



were seen 



(thou wert seen) 



r had seen had been seen 
l^had seen had been seen 



IMPERATIVE MODE 
Present Tense 



ACTIVE VOICE 


] 


passive voice 


See (thou) 


Be 


(thou) seen 


See (ye or you) 


Be 

PARTICIPLES 


(ye or you) seen 


Present 


Past 


Perfect 


Active Seeing 


Seen 


Having seen 


Passive Being seen 


Seen 


Having been seen 



APPENDIX 249 

INFINITIVES 
Root Infinitives Participial Infinitives 

PRESENT PERFECT PRESENT PERFECT 

To see To have seen Seeing Having seen 

PROGRESSIVE FORM 

The progressive forms are made in the active voice by adding 
the present participle of a verb to each of the mode and tense 
forms of the verb ^' to be '^ ; as, for example, 

I am seeing I have been seeing 

I was seeing I had been seeing 

I shall be seeing, etc. 

In the passive voice the progressive forms are made by adding 
the past participle to ^^ am being," '^ is being," ^^ was being," and 

^^ were being," as 

I am being seen 

I was being seen, etc. 

This form in the passive voice is used only in the present and 
past indicative. 

EMPHATIC FORM 

This form, used in the present and past indicative and subjunc- 
tive, is made by '^ do," ^* does," or '' did " prefixed to the root form 
of the verb, as 

Present Indicative Past Indicative 

I do see We do see I did see We did see 

You do see You do see You did see You did see 

He does see They do see He did see They did see 

Present Subjunctive Past Subjunctive 

I, we, ^ I, we, 1 

thou, you, !► do see thou, you, )- did see 



he, they J he, they J 

Present Imperative 
Do see 



INDEX 



References are to pages 



I. SUBJECTS TREATED AND WORDS COMMENTED ON 



A and a7i, uses, 133, 134 

Above, uses, 123, 223 

Abstract nouns, defined, 69 

Active voice, 159, 160 

Adjectives, 16, 17, 130-143, 223 ; 
comparison, 135-138; defined, 16, 
22; kinds, 130-135; or adverbs, 
140, 194; predicate, 130 

Adjective phrases and clauses, 59, 
60 

Adverbial objectives, 230, 231 

Adverbial phrases and clauses, 61 

Adverbs, 21-24, 189-195, 223, 238, 
239 ; comparison, 191 ; conjunc- 
tive, 190; distinguished from 
adjectives, 192, 194-; degrees of 
comparison, 135; kinds, 130, 135, 
189, 190, 238 ; modal, 238 ; phrasal, 
190, 191 ; position, 239 

After, uses, 223 

All, uses, 223 

Antecedents, 15, 103, 104 

Any, uses, 223 

Appendix, 221-249; adverbial ob- 
jectives, 230 ; adverbs, 238, 239 ; 
appositives, 230, 231 ; case rela- 
tions, 225-229; complements of 
finite verbs, 229 ; complements 
of passive verbs and infinitives, 
231,232; conjugations, 245-249 ; 
declension of nouns and pronouns, 
241-242 ; elliptical sentences, 240, 
241 ; forms denoting possession 
and kind, 232-234 ; list of irregu- 
lar verbs, 242-245 ; nominative 
independent, 227; objective com- 
plement, 229, 230; parts of speech, 



221-225; prepositions, 239, 240 ; 

subject of an infinitive, 228, 229 ; 

tenses, 236-258 ; use of shall, will, 

should, and would, 234-236 
Appositives, 89, 90, 230, 231 
Articles, peculiar use of, 133, 134 
As, uses, 222, 224 
Auxiliary verbs, 151, 152 

Be, conjugation, 154, 164, 181, 182; 

copula, 50 
Before, uses, 224 
Beside, besides, 198 
Betwee7t, among, 198 
But, uses, 222, 224 

Case, defined, 81, 114; forms in 
different relations, 11 4-1 16; of 
appositives, 89, 90; of demon- 
strative pronouns, 123, 124; of 
indefinite pronouns, 123 ; of inter- 
rogative pronouns, 122, 123; of 
nouns, 80-90 ; of personal pro- 
nouns, 114-119; of relative pro- 
nouns, 1 19-124; relations and 
forms, 225, 226. See Nominative, 
Possessive, and Objective 

Clauses, defined, 55 ; kinds, 56-59 ; 
use, 26 

Collective nouns, defined, 70 

Common nouns, (yZ 

Co?npa7'e to, co7npa7'e with, 240 

Comparison, of adjectives, 135-138; 
of adverbs, 191 

Complements, 50, 231, 232; objec- 
tive, 229; subjective, 49, 50, 231 

Complex sentence, defined, 64 



251 



252 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Compound personal pronouns, 96 
Compound relative pronouns, 98, 

99; case, 121, 122 
Compound sentence, defined, 63 
Compound subject and predicate, 

38 

Conjugation, defined, 181; ''be," 
245, 246 ; of emphatic forms, 249 ; 
" see," 247-249 

Conjunctions, 26-28, 200-204 ; cor- 
relative, 28, 202 ; kinds of, 201 ; 
list, 27; phrasal, 203 ; use, 26, 200 

Conjunctive adverbs, 190 

Construction of sentences, meaning, 
4, 5 ; adjectives, 134-140 ; adverbs, 
191-195; conjunctions, 201-203 ; 
miscellaneous review, 205-213; 
nouns, 83-90, 229-233 ; preposi- 
tions, 197-199; pronouns, 106, 
111-127, 226; verbs, 163-170, 
179-184 

Coordinate conjunctions, 64 

Copula and copulatives, 49, 50 

Declarative sentence, defined, 8 
Declension, of nouns, 241 ; of pro- 
nouns, 114, 115, 241, 242 
Defective verbs, 245 
Degrees of comparison, 135, 136; 

191, 192 
Demonstrative pronouns, loi, 123 
Descriptive adjectives, 130 
Different from ^ as preposition, 240 
Difficult constructions, 165-167 

Each, number, 108 

Either, each other, use, 222 ; number, 

108 
Either — or, 202 
Elliptical sentences, 240, 241 
Emphatic tense forms, 162, 163 
Enough, use, 224 
Exclamatory sentences, defined, 10 

Fast, uses, 224 

Feminine nouns, termination of, 72 

Few, number, 108 

First, number, 109 

Foreign plurals, 77 

Former, number, 109 



Full, uses, 224 

Future perfect tense, 150, 151 

Future tense, 147, 148 

Gender, of nouns, 71, 72; of pro- 
nouns, 106, 107 

Good English, 3 

Government, of pronoun by verb, 
1 1 4-1 2 1 ; of verbs by subject, 163, 
164 

Grammar, chief ends of study, 5, 6 ; 
use, I, 3, 5 

Hard, uses, 224 

Have, auxiliary of perfect tenses, 148 

He, declined, 242 

Hers, use, 233, 234 

Herself, 96, 97 

Himself, 96, 97 

/, declined, 241 

Ideas, how expressed, 2 ; nature and 

kinds, I 
Imperative mode, defined, 156 
Imperative sentence, defined, 9 
In, into, at, distinguished, 198 
Indefinite pronouns, 102, 123 
Indicative mode, 153 
Infinitive phrases, 56 
Infinitives, 54, 174-177 ; active and 

passive, 175-177; construction 

of, 177, 178 ; root and participial, 

175 ; subject of, 228 
Interjections, 29 
Interrogative adverbs, 190 
Interrogative pronouns, 99, 122, 123 
Interrogative sentence, defined, 8 
Intransitive verbs, 145, 146 
Irregular verbs, list of, 180, 242-244 
//, as expletive, 35 ; declension, 242; 

in special cases, 107 

Kinds of sentences, 11 

Language, defined, 3 

Last, number, 109 

Latter, number, 109 

Like, uses, 224 

Limiting adjectives, defined, 130 

Little, uses, 224 



INDEX 



253 



Masculine gender, 72 

May^ as auxiliary, 156 

Mighty as auxiliary, 156 

Mine, 95, 233, 234 

Modal adverbs, 238 

Mode, 152-156; defined, 152; im- 
perative, 156; indicative, 153; 
subjunctive, 154-156 

More, most, in comparison, 136, 191 ; 
uses, 224 

Myself, 96 

JVear, uses, 225 

Needs, uses, 225 

Neither, number, 108 

No, as adverb, 239 

Nominative case, absolute, 228 ; by 
address, 227 ; by exclamation, 227 ; 
independent, 227; of nouns, 81; 
of pronouns, 1 14-127 

None, number, 108 

Nouns, 68-93 J abstract, 69 ; case, 
81; collective, 70, 71; common, 
68; defined, 13, 68; gender, 71, 
72; kinds of, 68-70; in nomina- 
tive case, 81 ; number of, 74-79; 
plurals, 75-78; proper, 68; used 
as adjectives and adverbs, 222 

Number, defined, 74 ; of nouns, 73- 
80; of pronouns, 108, 124; of 
verbs, 163-170; plural, 74 ; singu- 
lar, 74 

Numeral adjectives, 133 

Object, direct, 45 ; indirect, 47, 48 
Objective case, 83, 228-232 ; of 
nouns, 82-83 ; of interrogative 
pronouns, 122, 123; of personal 
pronouns, 11 4-1 16; of relative 
pronouns, 1 19-122 
Objective complement, 229 
Objects and complements, 45-53, 

231 
Oiily, position, 239 ; uses, 225 
Ours, use, 233, 234 

Participial infinitive, 175 
Participial phrases, 56 
Participles, 170-174; uses, 173; vari- 
ous forms of, 171, 172 



Parts of speech, 12-32, 221-225 

Perfect tenses, 148-150 

Person, of pronouns, 105 ; of verbs, 

163-165 
Personal pronoun, 94-97 ; case of, 

114-119; compound, 96; defined, 

95 

Personification, 72 

Phrasal adverbs, 190, 191 ; conjunc- 
tions, 203; participles, 171 

Phrases, defined, 27, 56; kinds of, 
56-61 ; prepositional, 56; used as 
nouns, 222 ; used as prepositions, 
197; uses, 27; verb phrases, 19 

Plurals, how formed, 74-76 ; of com- 
pound nouns, 78; of foreign words, 
']'] ; of letters, etc., 77 ; of proper 
nouns, 78 

Possessive, formation of, 232 ; of 
nouns in ^' ss " and " nee," 232 

Possessive case, defined, 84 ; denot- 
ing joint and separate possession, 
85, 86; of compound nouns, 86; 
of plurals, 85 ; of pronouns, 115, 
116; with " of," 233 

Predicate, complete, 36, 37 ; com- 
pound, 38 ; defined, 33 ; in differ- 
ent kinds of sentences, 33, 40, 41, 
42 ; simple, 2>^, 37 

Predicate adjective, 37, 49, 50, 139, 
140 

Predicate nouns, 49, 50, 81, 82 

Prepositional phrases, 56 

Prepositions, 196-199; choice of, 
197; defined, 25; explained, 24; 
Hst of, 196, 197 ; object of, 239, 
240 ; peculiar use of, 240 ; phrases 
used as, 197 

Principal parts of verbs, 178, 179, 
242-244 

Progressive forms of verbs, 161, 162 

Pronominal adjectives, defined, 132 ; 
list of, 132 

Pronouns, antecedent of, 103, 104; 
case of, 113-117; compound rel- 
ative, 98, 99; defined, 15; de- 
monstrative, loi ; gender of, 106; 
indefinite, 102 ; interrogative, 99 ; 
number of, 108; person of, 105; 
personal, 94-97 ; relative, 97, 98, 



254 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



119, 122 ; rule of agreement with 
antecedent, 1 1 1 ; used in different 
relations, 114-116 
Proper nouns, defined, 68 

Questions, direct, 99; indirect, 100 

Relative pronouns, antecedents of, 
104; case, 1 19-124; compound, 
98, 99 ; defined, 97 ; how used, 98 

Responsives, 239 

Root infinitive, 175 

Sentences, 7-1 1 ; complex, 64; com- 
pound, 63; declarative, 8 ; defined, 
3 ; elliptical, 240 ; exclamatory, 
10; imperative, 9 ; interrogative, 
8; kinds, 7, 9, 63, 64; simple, 63 

Sequence of tenses, 237 

Shall, use, 234-236 

Shotcld, use, 234-236 

So, uses, 225 

Some, number, 109 

So7ne one, use, 222 

Speech, parts of, 12 

Strong verbs, 179 

Subject, of an interrogative sen- 
tence, 40 ; of an imperative sen- 
tence, 41 ; of an explanatory 
sentence, 42; of an infinitive, 228 

Subjective complement, 49, 50, 81, 
82, 226, 231 

Subjunctive mode, conjugation, 1 54, 
155; defined, 154; use, 154-156 

Subordinate conjunction, defined, 
64; use, 64, 65, 201, 202 

Substantive phrases and clauses, 58, 

Superlative degree, how formed, 136 
Syntax, see Construction of sen- 
tences 

Tenses, defined, 147 ; perfect, 148- 
150; sequence, 237, 238 



That, as demonstrative pronoun, loi; 

as relative, 98 ; uses, 225 
The, uses, 133, 134, 225 
Their, theirs, 95, 115, 233, 234 
There, as expletive, 35 ; use, 233, 

234 
Thoii {thy, thine), use, 115 
Transitive verbs, 144-146, 159 

Verb phrases, use, 19, 151 

Verbals, 170-178; infinitives, 174- 
178; participles, 170-174 

Verbs, 144-188; active voice, 159, 
160; agreement with subject, 163- 
167; auxiliary, 151, 152; conju- 
gation of, 181,245-249; defective, 
245; defined, 19; difficult con- 
structions, 165-167; emphatic 
form of, 162; intransitive, 145; 
irregular, 180, 242-244 ; modes 
of, 152-156; passive voice, 159, 
160; perfect tenses of, 148-150; 
person and number of, 163-167; 
principal parts, 178, 179 ; progres- 
sive form of, 161, 162 ; tenses,i47, 
148; transitive, 144, 145; voice, 
159; weak and strong, 179, 180 

Vocative case, 227 

Voice, 159, 160, 172 

Weak verbs, 179 

What, double construction, 98 ; as 

interrogative, 100; uses, 225 
Which, use, 98 
While, 225 
Who, use, 98 
Will, use, 234-236 
Words, as different parts of speech, 

222-225 ; defined, 2 
Would, use, 234-236 

Ves, 239 
Voters, 233, 234 
Yourself, 96 



INDEX 



255 



II. EXERCISES 



When an exercise occupies two or more pages, reference is made to the first page only 



Abstract nouns, 70 

Adjective phrases and clauses, 59 

Adjectives, and the nouns or pro- 
nouns they limit, 17 ; as nouns, 
131 ; degrees of comparison, 138; 
or adverbs, 140; predicate, 139, 
140 ; syntax of, 142 

Adverbial phrases and clauses, 61 

Adverbs, and adjectives, 140, 141, 
192 ; and the words they modify, 
21, 22; comparison of, 193 

Analysis of sentences, 43, 51, 65, 90, 
91, 104, III, 124, 128, 142, 185, 214 

Antecedents, 104 

Appositives, case of, 90 

Case, nominative, of nouns, 82 ; ob- 
jective, of nouns, 83 ; of nouns in 
apposition, 90 ; of pronouns, 124; 
of personal pronouns, 117; of rel- 
ative pronouns, 119 

Clauses, adjective, 50 ; and phrases. 

Collective nouns, and the kind of 
objects to which they refer, 71 

Common nouns, 68 

Comparison, of adjectives, 138; of 
adverbs, 193, 195 

Complement, subjective, 50 

Compound personal pronouns, 97 

Compound relative pronouns, 99, 
121 

Conjunctions, coordinate, 203 ; cor- 
relative, 202 ; kinds of, 203 ; sub- 
ordinate, 203 

Declarative sentences, 8 
Demonstrative pronouns, 102 

Exclamatory sentences, 10 

Forms of pronouns and verbs, 207 

Gender, of nouns, 71 ; of pronouns, 
107, III, 124; words of opposite, 
71> 



Indefinite pronouns, 102 
Indicative mode, 153 
Infinitives, 55, 178 
Interjections, 29 
Interrogative pronouns, 100 
Interrogative sentences, 9 

Kinds of sentences, 1 1 

Mode of verbs, 157, 161 

Nominative case, of nouns, 82 
Nouns, abstract, 70; collective, 71; 
common, 68 ; gender of, 73 ; in 
apposition, 90 ; kind of, 13 ; num- 
ber of, 78 ; proper, 68 ; syntax of, 
142 
Number, and person of verbs, 162, 
168; of nouns, 78, S^', of pro- 
nouns, III, 124; of verbs, 182, 
207 

Objective case, of nouns, ^t^ ; of 
pronouns, T17, 119, 125 

Objects of verbs, direct, 46; indi- 
rect, 48 

Participles, 55, 113, 173 

Parts of speech, 30, 43 

Person of pronouns, 106, iii, 124 

Personal pronouns, 96, 117 

Phrasal conjunctions, 203 ; distin- 
guished, 57 ; how used, 59 

Phrases and clauses, adjective, 59 ; 
kinds, 62 ; substantive, 59 

Phrases, participial and infinitive, 57 ; 
used as prepositions, 197 

Plurals of nouns, 78 

Possessive case, of nouns, 87 ; of 
pronouns, 117, 124 

Predicate, complete, 37, 39 ; com- 
pound, 38 ; of a declarative sen- 
tence, 34 ; of an exclamatory 
sentence, 42 ; of an imperative 
sentence, 41; of an interrogative 
sentence, 41 



256 



ENGLISH GRAMMAR 



Prepositional phrases, 198 
Prepositions, 25, 197, 198 
Principal parts of verbs, 180 
Pronominal adjectives, 132, 141 
Pronouns, and antecedents, 15, t6; 

case, 124, 205, 210; demonstrative, 

102 ; indefinite, 102 ; person, 106 ; 

person, number, and gender, 1 1 1 ; 

personal, 96; relative, 97; syntax, 

I II, 125, 142 
Proper nouns, 68 

Relative pronouns, and antecedents, 
97, 100; case, 119; syntax, 142 

Sentence, complex, 65 ; compound, 
65 ; essential parts, 2, 3 ; kinds, 1 1 

Subject and predicate, of a declara- 
tive sentence, 36, 39; of an ex- 
clamatory sentence, 42 ; of an 
imperative sentence, 41 ; of an 
interrogative sentence, 40 



Subject, complete, 42 ; compound, 

38 ; simple, t^-j, 42 
Subjective complement, 50 
Substantive phrases and clauses, 59 
Syntax, of adjectives, 142; of ad- 
verbs, 194 ; of nouns, 142 ; of 
pronouns, 107, 1 11, 117, 124 ; of 
verbs, 168, 182, 184, 207, 213 

Tense of verbs, 150, 157, 161, 184, 

Transitive and intransitive verbs, 
146 

Verbs, and verb phrases, 19 ; auxil- 
iary, 149 ; correct, 208 ; mode and 
tense, 1 57 ; person and number, 
166, 182, 207 ; principal parts, 180; 
progressive forms, 162, 168 ; tense, 
150, 184, 213; transitive and in- 
transitive, 146; voice, 160 

Voice, 160 



MAY 28 1910 



Deacidified using the Bookkeeper proces 
Neutralizing agent: Magnesium Oxide 
Treatment Date: Oct. 2006 






One copy del. to Cat. Div. 
m 23 tm 



LIBRARY OF CONGRESS 



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